generate and maintain this justice and friendship men must have the courage to try methods that have never been tried before. However widely men may differ as to methods, no rational man can dissent from the desire of the President as thus expressed. It is surely idle to expect leagues, or partnerships, or societies, or high courts of justice, to be effective unless the great body of mankind wants justice and friendship more than it has wanted them before. Moreover, the leaders of the present generation would be falling far short of their duty and their opportunity if, in seeking this justice and friendship, they did not improve upon former methods. This does not mean, however, that we can ignore the means which the world has tried before. If for no other reason than to avoid discredited or unwise methods, it is important that we should know what methods have been tried and why they have partially or wholly failed.

For purposes of convenience we may consider former efforts to secure international cooperation under five headings:

(1) Plans for perpetual peace;

(2) Attempts to create a confederation of Europe after the Napoleonic Wars;

(3) Efforts of jurists, statesmen and diplomatists

to substitute agreement for force in the settlement' of international disputes;

(4) The international co-operation forced on the world by science and commerce;

(5) The international machinery adopted by the Allied nations by reason of the pressure of the war with Germany.

It is not pretended that the foregoing classification is a strictly scientific one, or even that it is the best one. It will permit, however, a brief review of the failures and successes of those who have gone before us. We may be able to see a little farther ahead if we are willing to stand on the shoulders of our fathers.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

WILLIAM GRAHAM SUMNER, "War," in War and Other Essays, pp. 3-40, edited by Albert Galloway Keller. President Wilson's Foreign Policy, edited by James Brown Scott, containing the addresses of the President to April 6, 1918. For his addresses subsequent to that date, see the daily press. A League of Nations, Bimonthly Pamphlets of the World Peace Foundation, Vol. I, No. 1, containing "What We Are Fighting For," by President Wilson, ex-President Taft, and President Lowell, of Harvard University; Vol. I, No. 3, containing "War Aims of Belligerents

as Elicited by Russia's Attempt to Secure a General Peace."

JAMES BRYCE (Viscount Bryce), Essays and Addresses in Wartime, especially "The Attitude of Great Britain in the Present War," pp. 17 to 38; "The War State: Its Mind and Its Methods," pp. 39 to 64; "The War and Human Progress," pp. 65 to 91.

G. LOWES DICKINSON, The European Anarchy.

II

PLANS FOR PERPETUAL PEACE

FOR three hundred years and more philoso

phers and statesmen have dreamed of perpetual peace, and from time to time especially when the horrors of war were fresh in mindmen have put forward plans which they thought would make that dream come true. It is worth our while to review some of these projects.

One of the earliest of the peace plans was that of Emeric Crucé, who published at Paris, in 1623, a book called, Le Nouveau Cynée, which he described in the sub-title as a "Discourse of the Occasions and Means to Establish a General Peace, and the Liberty of Commerce Throughout the Whole World." 1 This book

1 For the sake of saving space, Dante's ideal of a universal Christian empire, expressed in his De Monarchia, the scheme of Pierre Dubois for a general European alliance and a permanent Court of Arbitration, set forth in 1305 in his De Recuperatione Terre Sancte, and Antoine Marini's proposal for a federation of the Christian States of Europe, presented in 1460, are passed over with no further mention.

A copy of Crucé's book came to the Harvard University Library in 1874 through the private library of Charles Sumner. In

was published while the destructive Thirty Years' War was in its early stages. The remarkable thing about Crucé's work is not his plan of world organization, but the fact that a monk and pedagogue in the early part of the seventeenth century should lay so much stress upon the value of international commerce in bringing about world peace. He no doubt reflected the spirit of a Europe which was in the midst of the Commercial Revolution when he tells us that "there is no occupation to compare in utility with that of the merchant who legitimately increases his resources by the expenditure of his labor and often at the peril of his life, without injuring or offending anyone: in which he is more worthy of praise than the soldier, whose advancement depends upon the spoil and destruction of others. And since it is now the question how to banish idleness, and divert the evil ideas that it ordinarily causes in the minds of ne'er-do-wells, there is no better expedient for that than commerce, to which Princes must urge their subjects by every sort of expedient." To the end that this commerce on sea and land might be promoted, Crucé pro

1909 it was translated by Thomas Willing Balch, the French text and Mr. Balch's translation being published by Allen, Lane & Scott, of Philadelphia. All the quotations from Crucê given in this article are from the translation of Mr. Balch.