cannot compel any member to attend, nor can he maintain order by force. Great freedom of debate is permitted in Committee of the Whole, and some of the most notable speeches have been delivered when the house has been thus organized. When the committee has finished its business it rises and reports to the House, which may act on the report of the Committee of the Whole as it sees fit. The rules of the house require that bills relating to the levying of taxes and the appropriation of money must be considered in Committee of the Whole.

The Making of a Law. A proposed law is known as a bill. Bills Bills may be introduced in either house, except that revenue bills must be introduced in the House of Representatives. The introduction of a bill is a very simple matter; the bill is simply placed upon the desk of the presiding officer or clerk, and after being read by title is given over to an appropriate committee. Should the bill be reported by the committee, it is read a second time and placed upon the "calendar." This does not guarantee that the bill will ever be acted upon, as bills are not always taken from the calendar in order.

When a bill is taken from the calendar it is read a third time and may be debated. In the house there is ordinarily little chance for debate, as the Speaker usually recognizes only those who have previously obtained his consent, or the consent of the chairman of the committee which reported the bill. Moreover, debate may be closed at any time by having a member of the majority move the “previous question," which, if carried, compels an immediate vote.

In the senate debate is more encouraged. The Vice

President exercises no such authority as the Speaker, and debate is not so limited by the rules. In taking a vote, the usual method is for the presiding officer to call for those in favor to say "Aye" and then for those opposed to say "No." The decision is given in favor of the side that has apparently the largest number of supporters. If the vote be in doubt, or a member requests it, a rising vote is taken. When the decision is still doubtful, or if demanded by onefifth of a quorum, the clerk calls the list of members, and the vote of each is recorded. In the last manner of voting "pairs" are permitted, which means that two members, both desiring to be absent, may agree that they shall be recorded as voting upon opposite sides whether present or not during the period of agreement. A bill having passed one house, receives the signature of the presiding officer and is sent to the other house. Here it goes through the same process again. The second house may pass, amend, or reject a bill. In case a bill is amended it must again pass the house in which it originated. Should the amendment not be satisfactory, the two houses appoint a conference committee, made up of members from both houses, which endeavors to arrive at a compromise. A bill having passed both houses is sent to the President with the signatures of the presiding officers of both houses attached. Should the President approve the bill it becomes a law to take effect as provided. A bill disapproved by the President becomes a law if repassed by a two-thirds vote of senate and house.

Filibustering. -In order to prevent legislation on some matter of great importance, the minority may resort to measures intended to delay or prevent action, commonly called "filibustering." By calling for the ayes and noes,

by making motions to adjourn, by points of order, by amendments, etc., it has sometimes been possible to prevent action or to weary the majority until it will accept a compromise. In the house, the Speaker, by refusing to recognize a member or by refusing to listen to a motion which he considers to have been made merely for the purpose of delaying action, may discourage filibustering. Prolonged debate is cut off in the house by moving the previous question. In the Fifty-First Congress, the minority attempted to delay action by refusing to vote when the roll was called, and less than a quorum having voted, the point of order would be raised that there was "no quorum."

Speaker Reed resorted to "counting a quorum," by ordering the clerk to count as present those members who were in their seats, but had not voted. This precedent has since been followed.

In the senate, filibustering is possible by means of long speeches. On the Federal Elections Bill of 1890-1891, twenty-five long speeches were delivered by members of the minority party and they announced their ability and intention to talk indefinitely. The majority of the senate usually wins in the end by all-night sessions, the members relieving one another in attendance.

Congressional Publications. All speeches delivered in Congress are published in full in the Congressional Record, a paper published daily during sessions of Congress. Oftentimes the Congressional Record contains a long speech which was actually never delivered, the member having made a few remarks and obtained leave to print the entire speech. Reprints from the Congressional Record may be obtained by members and are extensively circulated among

their political friends. A bi-weekly Journal gives a summary of all bills introduced and all votes.

Comparison of Congress with the British Parliament.— When the Constitution of the United States was adopted, Congress resembled Parliament in many ways. The American senate was in many respects like the House of Lords, and our House of Representatives was not unlike the House of Commons. Since 1787, both Congress and Parliament have changed. The House of Lords has long ceased to be equal to the House of Commons, and since the reform bill of 1911 has become comparatively of little importance. Since 1911, the House of Lords has been denied the power to amend or reject a bill for the appropriation of money, or for the levying of a tax, or for the making of a loan. This gives the House of Commons complete power over all money bills, while our House of Representatives is merely the house in which money bills must originate. The House of Lords cannot prevent any bill from becoming a law if the House of Commons insists that it shall be passed. When any measure, other than a money bill, has passed the Commons in three successive sessions it becomes a law, notwithstanding its rejection or amendment by the Lords, provided that at least two years have passed between the introduction of the bill into the House of Commons and the date on which it passes that house for the third time. The House of Lords has remained an aristocratic body, but has lost practically all its former powers; the senate, on the contrary, has become more democratic and has kept all its powers.

The House of Commons has become a really democratic body and now exercises almost complete power to legislate.

There is no power above it to veto its acts, and the House of Lords can only postpone the passage of some of them for a few years. Members of the House of Commons now receive a yearly salary of £400.

QUESTIONS ON THE TEXT

1. Explain why the Constitution provides that the term of a member of the House of Representatives shall be shorter than the term of a senator.

2. One-third of the members of the Senate are chosen once in two years. Give reasons for the gradual change in membership. 3. Mention two respects in which the government of the United States and that of Great Britain agree.

4. How does the organization of the Senate differ from that of the House of Representatives?

5. Show the importance of the office of Speaker of the House. 6. Criticise the committee system of Congress.

7. Show briefly how a United States law is made.

QUESTIONS SUGGESTED BY THE TEXT

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Congress composed of two houses?

2. It is a custom that Representatives should reside in the districts which they represent. Show the advantages and disadvantages of this custom, and compare with the English practice. Bryce "American Commonwealth," Vol. I, Chap. XIX.

3. Should senators be elected by popular vote? Bryce, "American Commonwealth," Vol. I, Chap. XI.

4. Name six of the most famous senators and representatives of the present Congress and tell for what each one is noted.

5. Does the individual voter of New York have as great an influence on Congress as the voter of Mississippi?