Hence, international law should be constantly illustrated from those sources which are recognized as ultimate authority, such as: (a) cases, both of judicial and arbitral determination; (b) treaties, protocols, acts and declarations of epoch-making congresses, such as Westphalia (1648), Vienna (1815), Paris (1856), The Hague (1899 and 1907), and London (1909); (c) diplomatic incidents ranking as precedents for action of an international character; (d) the great classics of international law.

(c) In the teaching of international law, care should be exercised to distinguish the accepted rules of international law from questions of international policy.

This is particularly true of the teaching of international law in American institutions. There is a tendency to treat as rules of international law certain principles of American foreign policy. It is important that the line of division be clearly appreciated by the student. Courses in the foreign policy of the United States should, therefore, be distinctly separated from the courses in international law, and the principles of American foreign policy, when discussed in courses of international law, should always be tested by the rules which have received acceptance amongst civilized nations.

(d) In a general course on international law, the experience of no one country should be allowed to assume a consequence out of proportion to the strictly international principles it may illustrate.

RESOLUTION No. 5.

Resolved, That the Conference recommends that a major in international law in a university course leading to the degree of doctor of philosophy be followed, if possible, by residence at The Hague and attendance upon the Academy of International Law, which is to be established in that city; that it is the sense of the Conference that no better means could possibly be devised for affording a just appreciation of the diverse national views of the system of international law or for developing that "international mind" which is so essential in a teacher of that subject; and that therefore as many fellowships as possible should be established in the Academy at The Hague, especially for the benefit of American teachers and practitioners of international law.

RESOLUTION No. 6.

Resolved, That it is the conviction of this Conference that the present development of higher education in the United States and the place which the United States has now assumed in the affairs of the Society of Nations justify and demand that the study of the science and historic applications of international law take its place on a plane of equality with versities, and that professorships or departments deother subjects in the curriculum of colleges and univoted to its study should be established in every institution of higher learning.

RESOLUTION No. 7.

line between undergraduate and graduate instruction Resolved, That, in order adequately to draw the in international law, the Conference makes the following recommendations:

Assuming that the undergraduate curriculum includes a course in international law, as recommended in Resolution No. 6, the Conference suggests that graduate instruction in international law concerns three groups of students:

(a) Graduate students in law.

(b) Graduate students in international law and political science.

(c) Graduate students whose major subjects for an advanced degree are in other fields; for example, history or economics.

The first two groups of students have a professional interest in international law, many having in view the teaching of the subject, its practice, or the public service. Therefore, as to them, the Conference recommends that the graduate work offered be distinctively of original and research character, somewhat as outlined in Resolution No. 4, following a preliminary training in the fundamental principles of the subject, as pursued in the undergraduate course

or courses.

As to those of the third group, having less professional interest in international law, a broad general course in the subject is recommended.

RESOLUTION No. 8.

Resolved, That this Conference directs that a letter be sent to teachers of political science, law, history, political economy and sociology throughout the country, calling attention to and emphasizing the essential and fundamental importance of a knowledge of international law on the part of students in those branches, which letter shall state the opinion of this Conference that every college of liberal arts, every graduate school and every law school, should have or make provision for courses in international law, and urge that all graduate students working in the abovementioned fields be advised to include this subject in their courses of study.

Resolved, That, in accordance with the preceding resolution, there be prepared and sent out with this letter reprints of Senator Root's article entitled,

"The Need of Popular Understanding of International Law," which appeared in Vol. I of the "American Journal of International Law," and of his address delivered at the opening of this Conference.

Resolved, That the Recording Secretary of the American Society of International Law attend to the drafting, printing and distribution of the abovespecified letter and reprints, and that he is hereby authorized, if he sees fit, to send out additional literature therewith.

RESOLUTION No. 9.

Resolved, That, in recognition of the growing importance of a knowledge of international law to all persons who plan to devote themselves to the administration of justice, and who, through their professional occupation, may contribute largely to the formation of public opinion, and who often will be vested with the highest offices in the State and nation, this Conference earnestly requests all law schools which now offer no instruction in international law to add to their curriculum a thorough course in that subject.

Resolved, further, That a copy of this resolution be sent to all law schools in the United States.

RESOLUTION No. 10.

Resolved, That the Conference hereby calls the attention of the State bar examiners and of the bodies whose duty it is to prescribe the subjects of examination, to the importance of requiring some knowledge of the elements of international law in examinations for admission to the bar, and urges them to make international law one of the prescribed subjects.

RESOLUTION No. 11.

Resolved, That the Conference hereby requests the American Bar Association to take appropriate action toward including international law among the subjects taught in law schools and required for admission to the bar.

RESOLUTION No. 12.

Resolved, That the Conference hereby adopts the following recommendations:

(a) That it is desirable, upon the initiative of institutions where instruction in international law is lacking, to take steps toward providing such instruction by visiting professors or lecturers, this instruction to be given in courses, and not in single lectures, upon substantive principles, not upon popular questions of momentary interest, and in a scientific spirit, not in the interest of any propaganda.

(b) That members of the American Society of International Law, qualified by professional training, be invited by the Executive Council or the Executive Committee of the Society to give such courses, and that provision be made, through the establishment of lectureships or otherwise, to bear the necessary expenses of the undertaking.

(c) That the Standing Committee on the Study and Teaching of International Law and Related Subjects of the American Society of International Law,

the appointment of which was recommended in Resolution No. 1, be requested to ascertain what institutions are in need of additional instruction in international law, and endeavor to find means of affording such assistance as may be necessary to the teaching staff of the said institutions, or of supplying this additional instruction by lecturers chosen by the said committee and approved by the Executive Council or Executive Committee.

(d) That steps be taken to bring to the attention of every college at present not offering instruction in international law, the importance of this subject, and the readiness of the American Society of International Law, through its Standing Committee on the Study and Teaching of International Law and Related Subjects, to co-operate with such institutions in introducing or stimulating instruction.

RESOLUTION No. 13.

Resolved, That this Conference hereby requests and recommends that universities having summer schools offer summer courses in international law.

Resolved, further, That the American Society of International Law, through its Standing Committee on the Study and Teaching of International Law and Related Subjects, is hereby requested to endeavor to stimulate a demand for courses in international law in summer schools.

RESOLUTION No. 14.

Resolved, That the Conference recommends the establishment and encouragement in collegiate institutions of specialized courses in preparation for the diplomatic and consular services.

RESOLUTION No. 15.

Resolved, That the Conference recommends that the study of international law be required in specialized courses in preparation for business.

RESOLUTION No. 16.

Resolved, That a Committee of Revision, consisting of ten members, of which Mr. James Brown Scott shall be chairman ex officio, be appointed by the Chair for the revision in matters of form of the various resolutions and recommendations made to this Conference

by the different committees and sub-committees, and adopted by it, the said Committee of Revision to send a copy of the said resolutions and recommendations to every law school, college and university in the United States and to the American Society of International Law, through its Executive Council or Executive Committee, for such action as will serve to effectuate the recommendations of the Conference.

"Over the Ice with Stefansson" ("Harper's Magazine," April), is the title of an illustrated account of Burt M. McConnell, the meteorologist of the Canadian Arctic Expedition led by the explorer Vilhjarlmur Stefansson. Mr. McConnell believes that Stefansson, though missing for a year, is still alive, hoping and waiting for rescue.

[The practicability of a "working museum" of history, as described in the HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE of March, 1914, is concretely illustrated in the following article. The author is one of my own pupils who obtained her impulse from experience with the workings of our normal museum of history. She lives in the country and teaches in a small village school, and has few exceptional advantages except intelligent enthusiasm. Her article is submitted in the hope that many may follow her example to the extent of their possibilities.-EDWARD CARLTON PAGE, Northern Illinois State Normal School, DeKalb, Illinois.]

My home is on a farm that has been owned by our family ever since, as prairie land, it was purchased from the United States Government. My people came to this home in prarie schooners or around the lakes" from western New York, New Hampshire and Vermont about 1840. They apparently had been used to many of the better modes of living of farmer folk in those days, and were unwilling to adapt themselves to many of the makeshift contrivances used by their less caring neighbors in the new west. They also were gifted with a generous share of Yankee frugality so that nothing of any possible use was ever thrown away. Because of these two facts I became the fortunate inheritor of a rich field from which to build an historical museum. The purpose of my museum, first of all, is to tell the story by means of objects, of our home farm and community, from its earliest acquisition by white men up to my own childhood. With this in mind I had only to search the sheds, granary, old house which gave place to my present home, and the garrets for the material I wanted. I made for myself the following rule before I began: I will take to the museum only those things that are serving no useful or ornamental purpose about the place at the time I find them. When things cease to be useful, they may be relegated to my museum.

First, I cleaned the walls, floor and window of an unused room of an old house. With a perfectly, bare, clean room before me I began to enumerate in my mind the desirable material for such purpose that I had seen about the place and heard stories about since my childhood. Then I began to collect it. Everything must be dusted or carefully cleaned before taking its place in the museum, for the shades of those starchy great-grandmothers would surely haunt the granddaughter who let their precious household treasures, undusted and unpolished, be displayed "before company." From the loft of my grandfather's house I brought the big wooden cradle. that was made by my great-greatuncle for my aunt and her brother and sisters. I found the fire tongs there too, brought from New York state, and used at

the hearth of my great-grandfather when he lived in his loghouse-the first house built on the farm. I found iron candle sticks, used by my grandfather, in father's tool house. In the shed was an ox-yoke used by grandfather in breaking prairies. Another great grandmother's framed wax flowers were found in a deserted storeroom. There was also a brass preserving kettle and an apple butter stirrer in the same house. I found a butcher knife more than seventy years old in the kitchen knife drawer. There was a hair-cloth davenport of the 1860 days in the furnace room. It took considerable puffing and pulling to get this out of the cellar and up a narhelp of a twelve-year old boy who was immensely inrow winding stair to the museum. I enlisted the terested in everything that went into the museum. For the rest I got the help of my grown up sister. My mother and father, too, became interested and often brought me little articles from out of the way corners, telling me at the same time the story that went with the piece, and adding, "This ought to be put in the museum.' One rainy afternoon my sister and I spent a long time in the garret searching through old trunks for family treasures, old jewelry and books. The collection we found, we took to our mother, and then and there asked for the story that went with it. At first I wanted my museum to be only a "family museum "-that is, containing only things connected with the family history. I showed it to and explained it to all the aunts, uncles and cousins who visited us or whom I visited, and they began to contribute things that had belonged to my were associated with the farm. grandparents or Friends of the family who heard of it or saw it offered to contribute articles of interest such as stone arrow heads and big glass headed nails for hanging pictures.

Every article is labeled with the dates of its use, its name and the name of the person who owned, used, or wore it. Thus the celluloid bridle rossettes used on grandfather's driving team are labeled 'Bridle Rossettes, 1868-1882. Worn by Frank and Colnel, the A. J. Nichols driving team."

Though my museum is yet quite young, I have in mind several uses for it. First, it is a long needed place in our house to store family treasures that just cannot be condemned to the annual house cleaning bon-fire. I see it in the future as a valuable collection of illustrative material to use in teaching history. It is to be a place to which I can invite the local schools with their teachers each year to get acquainted with the long ago. It is to be a place to which I can take my history-loving, small boy friends and satisfy some of the curiosity. Then the good it has done me, in uplifting sentiment, exercise, activity, research and ultimate satisfaction I should not care to miss.

THE PROBLEM OF DEFINITENESS.

Teachers will probably differ in opinion as to the particular points which should be emphasized in discussing the French Revolution, but all will agree as to the stress to be laid upon certain aspects of the movement. It ought to be possible to find some common ground where all teaching of the subject should meet. This is undoubtedly the great problem in the teaching of any period of history, to mark off and clearly delimit this area. More important, still, is the necessity of making clear to the student the work to be done in preparation for the classroom. This is also a part of the problem of making our teaching definite. We may agree with Miss Salmon's thesis, which she maintained at a meeting of the Middle States and Maryland Association a few years ago, that there is a decided advantage in the vagueness and indefiniteness characteristic of our subject, but the task to be performed by the student, should be clear-cut and well-defined. This result can be best attained by resorting to the so-called problem method in our teaching. There would seem to be a decided tendency in this direction as evidenced by the appearance of books like Keatinge, Duncalf and Krey, and the recent volume by W. J. R. Gibbs.1 There is a certain mass of detail which the student must sift for himself, and upon which the recitation must be based. It is not enough, however, that he be assigned this mass without certain well defined rules to guide him in analyzing and preparing the same. It is also highly desirable that he should actually live these experiences if he is really to profit by his study of the subject. The problems which have been suggested to illustrate these points have been made very simple in character, and are based upon the outline of the period which appeared in the HISTORY TEACHER'S MAGAZINE for March, 1913. No elaborate apparatus is required. It is assumed that the equipment of the school may be limited.

THE DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE REVOLUTION
ILLUSTRATED.

Those aspects of the French Revolution which demand attention would be its social, economic and political phases. If the class is about to begin the study of the French Revolution let the teacher take such works as Mathews, Johnston and Belloc,2 and as he reads the chapter headings in each to the class, let him question them as to what kind of a movement

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the author is describing. Each of these men apparently stresses a different aspect of the Revolution, and the student is consequently brought face to face with the question, I Which of these authors has the correct point of view?" If the French Revolution can be interpreted either as a social, an economic, or a political upheaval, let these words be carefully defined and understood. The exercise suggested for the class would be for its members to collate the causes of the Revolution mentioned in the particular text-book in use under these headings, and upon the basis of the resulting analysis come to the classroom prepared to express an opinion as to whether the movement was essentially political, economic or social in its origin. Two results should follow: (1) The student will see that some of the causes often have a dual aspect, e.g., feudal survivals, which are as important on the social as on the economic side. (2) He will recognize the fact that although the primary cause may seem to be but one of the three conditions named, the other conditions were closely intertwined with the paramount issue. By the solution of this problem he is prepared, as the movement progresses, to look for certain changes along these lines, and after the period has been covered, he may possibly carry away as the result of his study a clearer impression of what the revolution meant in the long run to the people of France and to all Europe.

as

PROBLEMS SUGGESTED BY THE FINANCIAL CRISIS. The second group of problems hinges upon the crisis which Louis XVI faced upon his accession to An excellent the throne, and his attempts to meet it. opportunity is presented here for comparisons and contrasts, and an exercise of judgment. Let the efforts of these ministers to meet the crisis be assigned a single exercise. Let Turgot, Necker and Calonne be tested as to their fitness for the task in hand; as to their diagnoses of the situation; and as to the remedies which they proposed. These results may be submitted in tabular form under such headings as: name of the reformer; preparation; reforms proposed; methods used or to be used; results accomplished. This form is likely to give each member of the class the material needed for the discussion of the classroom. Incidentally it might be added that the teacher may have to labor long and earnestly to secure good analyses even in cases where full directions are given. The recitation period may be spent in discussing whether these men fully realized the problems involved in their tasks; whether they met them in a broad statesmanlike fashion; and whether, individually or collectively, they could have averted the Revolution, had they been given a free hand. The discussion may relate itself closely to the preceding lessons upon the causes of the Revolution by pointing

out how one reformer looked upon the problem presented as essentially economic in character, another perhaps recognized the social basis of the difficulties presented, and so on through the list.

THE MEETING OF THE STATES GENERAL.

A problem closely related to those already described would be to discuss the question as to whether a meeting of the States General was needed and what its final summons really meant. At this point it should prove an interesting and instructive exercise, following that upon the work of the ministers, to assign to the class the problem of tracing the movement which led up to the summoning of the States General, in order that they may realize the significance of the meeting of the three orders on May 4, 1789. The discussion of the classroom should center about the meaning of this step. Had the Revolution really begun? The instructor should call to mind the various efforts already put forth-all emanating from the King and all put into execution or checkmated as the result of his absolute power-and the final failure of each, leaving one course open, and that a virtual confession of his inability to resolve the situation. This meant nothing short of the abandonment of his divine right pretensions and of his position as absolute master of the situation.

WRITING EDITORIALS.

A realistic touch may be given to these events by

asking the class to cast the discussion of the classroom in editorial form as a part or all of the assignment for the next lesson. As this particular form of problem must be well understood in order to secure good results, it might be well to prepare for it by devoting a lesson period to newspaper editorials.

The French Revolution was prolific of journalistic writers, and while they did not write as the newspaper man of the present day, our purpose is served if we take modern journalism as our medium of expression in portraying the attitude of the men of the time. The problem is outlined as follows: "We are preparing to write an editorial on the summoning of the States General. We are to imagine that we are connected with the staff of some reputable paper, and that either the summons has just gone forth or that the States General has met to-day for the first time in 175 years. To get an idea of the form which this comment should take each student should bring into class a good editorial with possibly the news item on which it is based." If it is impossible to bring both, the editorial alone will serve the purpose, as it can be brought out in the course of the discussion that each editorial is a series of comments upon some event or events of moment, which have recently stirred the country or community. The bias of the paper and the clientele to which it is addressed, can be brought out in discussing the editorials submitted. In cases where the work in history is paralleled by clippings and news items from the daily press, an additional interest is given to this phase of the work by a discussion of what constitutes an editorial. What are its essential characteristics? Encouragement can be

given students to read the editorial page, perhaps hitherto neglected. If they but realize some of the spicy bits of writing appearing there, they will be prompted to give editorial comment more time and

attention.

Assuming then, that our students know what an editorial write-up involves, they are assigned as an exercise the writing of an editorial upon the meeting of the States General. They are told that they are at liberty to use this or any other heading which seems to them to fit the treatment of the subject which they contemplate. They are to imagine themselves passing through these stirring times and commenting upon them as interested observers of what was taking place. If it seems wise not to devote two recitations to the problem of preparing the editorial, each student may be asked to bring a newspaper editorial to class, and be prepared to write his own editorial in the classroom on the model which he has clipped from the paper. As later phases of the Revolution lend themselves readily to this form of exercise, the time spent on the general subject of editorial writing may prove to be wisely and economically used.

SPECIMENS OF WORK.

The results possible in an average class, most of them in the second year of the high school course, can be judged by the following editorials. The reaction of many of these events upon the mind of the student is clearly illustrated by these sample exercises. They are all written by boys. No. V is the work of a very mature student.

I.

LE SOUFFRANT GENS.

People of France, awake! Open your eyes and see what you are and what you have endured. You have suffered, starved and died in poorest poverty while the king reveled in riches amongst his court. Now that he has taken our last drop of money away without our permission and against our will he wants to reform. I said reform, but it isn't. He calls us together to devise some new schemes of wringing money from us, but he goes too far. Our brothers in the Estates General have already shown their teeth and the king is afraid. Rise up, stand by them, and shout, "Down with the Privileged." Brothers, we are in a crisis. If the honorable, the privileged, the noble and the righteous succeed, we, the por scum, their slaves, shall remain so and be cowed forever. But we have suffered too far. Better death and no king than a bad one and disgrace. We want our rights, and we shall have them even if we shake the very foundations of the world to get them. But friends, be patient, to-morrow will be the issue. Encourage your brethren who are fighting for your rights, our rights, yes, the people's rights, and they will not succumb to injustice. Make the noble and the honorable succumb with the vile breath of the people. We are nothing in their eyes but vile slaves, but soon they will be less than that in ours. Now, friends, remember! Either our rights or their downfall. We will arouse the timid, open the eyes of the sleeping ones, and twenty-five million slaves will become free and three hundred thousand honorable wasters will be bereft of vile slaves. Poor souls, they will have to work and pay for their pleasures and amusements and we will have ours with the money with which we paid for theirs. Let this be our motto, " Equality, Freedom, and Justice forever and ever."

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