were added the expositions of various saints and reverend commentators: St. Chrysostom and St. Augustine, St. Jerome and St. Gregory, St. Basil and St. Ambrose, and Lactantius Firmianus, a redoubted champion of the faith. Doctrinal points were mixed up with philosophical discussions, and a mathematical de monstration was allowed no weight, if it appeared to clash with a text of scripture, or a commentary of one of the fathers. Thus the possibility of antipodes, in the southern hemisphere, an opinion so generally maintained by the wisest of the ancients, as to be pronounced by Pliny the great contest between the learned and the ignorant, became a stumbling block with some of the sages of SalamanSeveral of them stoutly contradicted this fundamental position of Colum bus, supporting themselves by quotations from Lactantius and St. Augustine, who were considered, in those days, as almost evangelical authority. But, though these writers were men of consummate erudition, and two of the greatest luminaries of what has been called the golden age of ecclesiastical learning, yet their writings were calculated to perpetuate darkness in respect to the sciences.

ca.

"The pasage cited from Lactantius to confute Columbus, is in a strain of gross ridicule, unworthy of so grave a casuist. Is there any one so foolish,' he asks, as to believe that there are antipodes with their heels upward, and their heads hanging down? That there is a part of the world in which all things are topsy-turvy; where the trees grow with their branches downward, and where it rains, hails, and snows upward? The idea of the roundness of the earth,' he adds, was the cause of inventing this fable of the antipodes, with their heels in the air; for, these philosophers having once erred, go on in their absurdities, defending one with another.'

"More grave objections were advanced on the authority of St. Augustine. He pronounces the doctrine of antipodes, incompatible with the historical foundations of our faith; since, to assert that there were inhabited lands on the opposite side of the globe, would be to maintain, that there were nations not descended from Adam, it being impossible for them to have passed the intervening ocean. This would be, therefore, to discredit the Bible, which expressly declares, that all men are descended from one common parent.

"Such were the unlooked-for prejudices which Columbus had to encounter at the very outset of his conference, and which certainly relish more of the convent than the university. To his simplest proposition, the spherical form of the earth, were opposed figurative texts of scripture. They observed, that in the Psalms, the heavens are said to be extended like a skin; that is, according to commentators, the curtain or covering of a tent, which among the ancient pas toral nations was formed of the skins of animals; and that St. Paul, in his Epistle to the Hebrews, compares the heaven to a tabernacle, or tent, extended over the earth, which they thence inferred must be flat.

"Columbus, who was a devoutly religious man, found that he was in danger of being convicted not merely of error, but of heterodoxy. Others more versed in science, admitted the globular form of the earth, and the possibility of an opposite and habitable hemisphere; but they brought up the chimera of the ancients, and maintained that it would be impossible to arrive there, in consequence of the insupportable heat of the torrid zone. Even granting this could be passed, they observed, that the circumference of the earth must be so great, as to require at least three years to the voyage; and those who should undertake it must perish of hunger and thirst, from the impossibility of carrying provisions for so long a period. He was told, on the authority of Epicurus, that, admitting the earth to be spherical, it was only inhabitable in the northern hemisphere, and in that section only was canopied by the heavens; that the opposite half was a chaos, a gulf, or a mere waste of water.

"Not the least absurd objection advanced was, that should a ship even succeed in reaching, in this way, the extremity of India, she could never get back again; for, the rotundity of the globe would present a kind of mountain, up which it would be impossible for her to sail, with the most favourable wind!

"Such are the specimens of the errors, and the pedantic bigotry, with which Columbus had to contend, throughout the examination of his theory. Can we wonder at the difficulties and delays, which he experienced at courts, when

such vague and crude notions were entertained by the learned men of a university? We must not suppose, however, because the objections here cited are all which remain on record, that they are all which were advanced; these only have been perpetuated on account of their superior absurdity. They were probably advanced by but few, and those persons immersed in theological studies, in cloistered retirement; where the erroneous opinions derived from books, had little opportunity of being corrected by the experience of the day.

"There were, no doubt, objections advanced more cogent in their nature, and more worthy of that distinguished university. It is but justice to add, also, that the replies of Columbus had great weight with many of his learned examiners. In answer to the scriptural objections, he submitted, that the inspired writers were not speaking technically, as cosmographers, but figuratively, in language addressed to all comprehensions. The commentaries of the fathers he treated with deference, as pious homilies, but not as philosophical propositions, which it was necessary either to admit or refute. The objections drawn from ancient philosophers, he met boldly and ably upon equal terms; for, he was deeply stu died on all points of cosmography. He showed that the most illustrious of these sages believed both hemispheres to be inhabitable, though they imagined that the torrid zone precluded communication; and he obviated, conclusively, that dif ficulty; for, he had voyaged to St. George la Mina, in Guinea, almost under the equinoctial line, and had found that region not merely traversable, but abounding in population, in fruits, and pasturage.

"When Columbus took his stand before this learned body, he had appeared the plain and simple navigator; somewhat daunted, perhaps, by the greatness of his task, and the august nature of his auditory. But he had a degree of superstitious feeling, which gave him a confidence in the execution of what he conceived his great errand; and he was of an ardent temperament, that became heated in action by its own generous fires. Las Casas, and others of his contem poraries, have spoken of his commanding person, his elevated demeanour, his air of authority, his kindling eye, and the persuasive intonations of his voice. How must they have given majesty and force to his words, as, casting aside his maps and charts, and discarding, for a time, his practical and scientific lore, his visionary spirit took fire at the doctrinal objections of his opponents, and he met them upon their own ground, pouring forth those magnificent texts of scripture, and those mysterious predictions of the prophets, which, in his enthusiastic moments, he considered as types and annunciations of the sublime discovery which he proposed."

Yet was the world in some degree prepared for the enterprise of Columbus. The arts of ship-building and seamanship, had been much improved. Navigators no longer bound themselves to follow the coast, nor dreaded to lose the sight of land; the mariner's compass was believed to point out the course with unerring certainty; and the astrolabe, introduced into use by Prince Harry of Portugal, might, even at the present day, be used to advantage in the determination of latitude at sea. The discoveries of the Portuguese, had dispelled the illusion of burning zones, and lands denied to human habitation.

And these truths had, in Columbus himself, as we have seen in the preceding extract, a living witness. The cultivation of astronomical knowledge, derived from the ancients by the intervention of the Arabs, had shown, by the strictest mathematical evidence, that the known portion of the world was a surface curved in the direction both of the meridians and parallels, and there

fore approaching to that of a portion of a sphere. Even an error growing out of a wrong estimate of the dimensions of the old continent, from east to west, was favourable to the views of Columbus. In this error, he was confirmed by the best information that could be obtained; and in it, in spite of his discoveries, he died. The eastern shores of Asia had been reached by the enterprising Venetian, Marco Polo; and religious missionaries had penetrated, in the ardour of their zeal, to Hindostan and Tartary. From their false estimates of the distances they had travelled, it was assumed by Columbus, that fifteen of the twenty-four hours into which the circumference of the earth is divided, had been known to the ancients, extending from the island of Ferro to the city of Thinæ, in Asia. Another hour had been added by the discoveries of the Azores; and hence but one-third part of the whole circumference remained, in his opinion, to be explored. A part of this even was tenanted, by the accounts of Marco Polo and Mandeville, with the islands of Cipango and Antilla. This state of geographical science, however erroneous we now know it to be, excited other minds besides that of Columbus; and was first delineated in the form of a Terrestrial Globe, by Martin Behem, in the year 1492, at the very moment that the former was engaged in his first voyage. Such, indeed, was the state of preparation that the age had attained, that the return of Columbus not only dispelled the prejudices that had before lingered, but caused such a revolution in public sentiment, that what appeared before improbable, nay impossible, in the nature of things, was now discerned by many to be so simple, as hardly to merit any honour. The manner in which Columbus silenced such derogating attacks upon his fame, is among the most trite and familiar of anecdotes; so much so, indeed, as to have become almost dubious, from its universal diffusion; and it has been disdained for its simplicity. But the very simplicity of the reproof, in the opinion of our author, constitutes its severity; and is strongly characteristic of the practical sagacity of Columbus. Our author, on the authority of an Italian historian, fixes the scene of the anecdote at the table of the Cardinal Archbishop of Toledo, who, in the double capacity of the first subject of the Crown, and one of the earliest patrons of Columbus, claimed the privilege of entertaining him, immediately after his reception by the King and Queen.

It was, however, only the envious, or the ignorant, that sought to depreciate the merit of Columbus; his sovereigns received him with honours never before granted in that proud court to a subject; his passage from Palos, to the court, was like the progress of a crowned head.

A part of his journey, and his reception by the monarchs, are thus described by our author:

"The letter of Columbus to the Spanish monarchs, announcing his discovery, had produced the greatest sensation at court. The event it communicated, was considered the most extraordinary of their prosperous reign; and following so close upon the conquest of Granada, was pronounced a signal mark of divine favour, for that triumph achieved in the cause of the true faith. The sovereigns themselves were for a time dazzled and bewildered by this sudden and easy ac quisition of a new empire, of indefinite extent, and apparently boundless wealth; and their first idea was to secure it beyond the reach of question or competition. Shortly after his arrival in Seville, Columbus received a letter from them, expressing their great delight, and requesting him to repair immediately to court, to concert plans for a second and more extensive expedition. As the summer was already advancing, the time favourable for a voyage, they desired him to make any arrangements at Seville, or elsewhere, that might hasten the expedition, and to inform them by the return of the courier, what was necessary to be done on their part. This letter was addressed to him by the title of Don Christopher Columbus, our admiral of the Ocean sea, and viceroy and governor of the islands discovered in the Indias;' at the same time he was promised still further rewards. Columbus lost no time in complying with the commands of the sovereigns. He sent a memorandum of the ships, men and munitions that would be requisite; and having made such dispositions at Seville as circumstances permitted, set out on his journey for Barcelona, taking with him the six Indians, and the various curiosities and productions which he had brought from the new world.

"The fame of his discovery had resounded throughout the nation, and as his route lay through several of the finest and most populous provinces of Spain, his journey appeared like the progress of a sovereign. Wherever he passed, the surrounding country poured forth its inhabitants, who lined the road and thronged the villages. In the large towns, the streets, windows, and balconies, were filled with eager spectators, who rent the air with acclamations. His journey was continually impeded by the multitude pressing to gain a sight of him, and of the Indians, who were regarded with as much admiration, as if they had been natives of another planet. It was impossible to satisfy the craving curiosity which assailed himself and his attendants, at every stage, with innumerable questions; popular rumour, as usual, had exaggerated the truth, and had filled the newly found country with all kinds of wonders.

"It was about the middle of April that Columbus arrived at Barcelona, where every preparation had been made to give him a solemn and magnificent reception. The beauty and serenity of the weather in that genial season, and favoured climate, contributed to give splendour to this memorable ceremony. As he drew near the place, many of the more youthful courtiers, and hidalgós of gallant bearing, together with a vast concourse of the populace, came forth to meet and welcome him. His entrance into this noble city has been compared to one of those triumphs which the Romans were accustomed to decree to con querors. First were paraded the Indians, painted according to their savage fashion, and decorated with tropical feathers, and with their national ornaments of gold; after these were borne various kinds of live parrots, together with stuffed birds and animals of unknown species, and rare plants supposed to be of precious qualities: while great care was taken to make a conspicuous display of Indian coronets, bracelets, and other decorations of gold, which might give an idea of the wealth of the newly discovered regions. After these followed Columbus, on horseback, surrounded by a brilliant cavalcade of Spanish chivalry. The streets were almost impassable from the countless multitude; the windows and balconies were crowded with the fair; the very roofs were covered with spectators. It seemed as if the public eye could not be sated with gazing on these trophies of an unknown world; or on the remarkable man by whom it had been discovered. There was a sublimity in this event, that mingled a solemn feeling with the public joy. It was looked upon as a vast and signal dispensation of providence in reward for the piety of the monarchs; and the majestic and venerable appearance of the discoverer, so different from the youth and buoyancy that are generally expected from roving enterprise, seemed in harmony with the grandeur and dignity of his achievement.

"To receive him with suitable pomp and distinction, the sovereigns had ordered their throne to be placed in public, under a rich canopy of brocade of gold, in a vast and splendid saloon. Here the king and queen awaited his arrival, seated in state, with the prince Juan beside them; and attended by the dignitaries of their court, and the principal nobility of Castile, Valentia, Catalonia, and Arragon; all impatient to behold the man who had conferred so incalculable a benefit upon the nation. At length Columbus entered the hall, surrounded by a brilliant crowd of cavaliers, among whom, says Las Casas, he was conspicuous for his stately and commanding person, which, with his countenance rendered venerable by his gray hairs, gave him the august appearance of a senator of Rome. A modest smile lighted up his features, showing that he enjoyed the state and glory in which he came; and certainly nothing could be more deeply moving to a mind inflamed by noble ambition, and conscious of having greatly deserved, than these testimonials of the admiration and gratitude of a nation, or rather of a world. As Columbus approached, the sovereigns rose, as if receiving a person of the highest rank. Bending his knees, he requested to kiss their hands; but there was some hesitation on the part of their majesties to permit this act of vassalage. Raising him in the most gracious manner, they ordered him to seat himself in their presence; a rare honour in this proud and puncti. lious court.

"At the request of their majesties, Columbus now gave an account of the most striking events of his voyage, and a description of the islands which he had discovered. He displayed the specimens he had brought of unknown birds and other animals; of rare plants of medicinal and aromatic virtue; of native gold in dust, in crude masses, or laboured into barbaric ornaments; and above all, the natives of these countries, who were objects of intense and inexhaustible interest; since there is nothing to man so curious as the varieties of his own spe cies. All these he pronounced mere harbingers of greater discoveries he had yet to make; which would add realms of incalculable wealth to the dominions of their majesties, and whole nations of proselytes to the true faith.

"The words of Columbus were listened to with profound emotion by the sovereigns. When he had finished, they sunk on their knees, and, raising their clasped hands to heaven, their eyes filled with tears of joy and gratitude, they poured forth thanks and praises to God for so great a providence. All present followed their example; a deep and solemn enthusiasm pervaded that splendid assembly, and prevented all common acclamations of triumph: the anthem of te deum laudamus, chanted by the choir of the royal chapel, with the melodious responses of the minstrels, rose up from the midst in a full body of sacred har mony, bearing up, as it were, the feelings and thoughts of the auditors to heaven, so that,' says the venerable Las Casas, it seemed as if in that hour they communicated with celestial delights.' Such was the solemn and pious manner in which the brilliant court of Spain celebrated this sublime event; offering up a grateful tribute of melody and praise, and giving glory to God for the discovery of another world.

"When Columbus retired from the royal presence, he was attended to his residence by all the court, and followed by the shouting populace. For many days he was the object of universal curiosity, and wherever he appeared he was surrounded by an admiring multitude.

"While the mind of Columbus was thus teeming with glorious anticipations, his pious scheme for the deliverance of the holy sepulchre was not forgotten. It has been shown that he suggested it to the Spanish sovereigns at the time of first making his propositions, holding it forth as the great object to be effected by the profits of his discoveries. Flushed with the idea of the vast wealth that was now to accrue to himself, he made a vow to furnish an army, within seven years, consisting of five thousand horse, and fifty thousand foot, for the rescue of the holy sepulchre, and a similar force within the five following years. This vow was recorded in one of his letters to the sovereigns, to which he refers, but which is no longer extant; nor is it certain whether it was made at the end of his first voyage, or at a subsequent date, when the magnitude and wealthy result of his discoveries became more fully manifest. He often alludes to it vaguely in