writers, as Jonah ben Gannach, D. Kimchi, Aben Ezra, Hadassi, became first known in 1715, by a communication which Joh. Gagnier sent to Joh. Chr. Wolf (Bibl. Hebr. iii. 311, seq.), then by extracts with translations by Schnurrer (Eichhorn's Bibliothek der Bibl. Liter. iii. 951–980), and H. Ewald (Beiträge zur Geschichte der ältesten Auslegung, &c., ed. by Ewald and Dukes, i. 116-123; ii. 117, 118), and has lately been edited from an imperfect manuscript of the Bodleian Library (cod. Huntington 573, comp. Uri. Cod. Manuscr. Hebr. et Chald. p. 95, No. 487), by J. L. Bargés and D. B. Goldberg, under the title, Epistola de Studii Targum Utilitate, &c., Paris, 1857 (cp. Geiger, Jüdische Zeitschrift, ix., Breslau, 1871, p. 59 seq.)-3. a Hebrew Grammar (PPD), quoted by Levi ben Fephet (1030) and anonymously by Aben Ezra; and 4, a homonymic (D'DA MÍDY 18A) mentioned by Jehudah Hadassi.

SAADIAH BEN JOSEPH HA-PITHOMI.

2. Saadiah ben Joseph Ha-Pithomi or Ha-Mizri, called in Arabic Said Ibn Fáakub al Fajjumi, was born A.D. 892, at Fajjumi, in Upper Egypt, and is the author of a number of works relating to Hebrew philology, which served to stimulate and direct later times, after he had translated all the Scripture into Arabic, with the addition of shorter or longer exegetical scholia. His grammatical works commence the series, viz. 1. a Hebrew Grammar, which consists of ten chapters or sections (D, AND), treating of the consonants, especially the gutturals, and their changes, the vowels, dagesh and raphe, the accents, on the connexion of words (D'), the nouns and particles; 2. refutations of and criticisms (in) upon the works of Ben Asher, written in rhymed verses; 3. a dictionary of the Hebrew language in alphabetical order, in Hebrew, in which each letter is called an; 4. an interpretation of ninety words occurring but once in the Bible añаğ

4 Aaron ben Moses ben Asher, or simply Ben Asher, as he is generally called, flourished circa A.D. 900 at Tiberias. He was the most accomplished scholar and representative of the Tiberian system of vocalization and accentuation, and wrote, in the interests of the Westerns, 1. A model Codex of the Bible, furnished with points and accents according to the Western school, which became the standard text; 2. A Treatise on the Massorah, entitled, The Massoreth of Ben Asher; 3. A Treatise on the Accents; 4. A Treatise on the Consonants and Vowels, and it was this treatise against which Saadiah wrote his objections and refutations.

Xeyóμeva, which he illustrated by synonymous terms gathered from the Mishnah, the Targum, and the Talmud, entitled

which has been published ,תפסיר אלסבעין ללפטה אלפרדה

by Dukes in his Beiträge, ii. p. 110-115, and again with important corrections in Geiger's Wissenschaftliche Zeitschrift, 1844, pp. 117-324; 5. a work on Hebrew style or rhetoric, D, in which he treats at length of word-building, style, grammatical anomalies, and the use of Hebraism in rhetorical style. On account of his great learning he was appointed Master of the great Jewish academy at Sora, in Babylonia, in 928, but, in consequence of a dispute and his unyielding character, was compelled to resign the office in 933; but resuming it four years later, his learning and energy rescued its name from the contempt into which it had fallen, and into which it relapsed after his death in 942.

MENACHEN BEN JACOB IBN SARUK.

3. Menachen ben Jacob ibn Saruk (po 1), born about 910 at Tortosa in Spain, died about 970, at Cordova. He wrote a copious Hebrew dictionary of Holy Scripture, including the Chaldee of Daniel and Ezra, with explanations in Hebrew, preceded by an elaborate grammatical treatise, entitled nane, now entirely edited from five MSS. by H. Filipowski, London and Edinburgh, 1854.

Ibn Saruk knew and used his predecessors Koreish and Saadiah (cp. e. g. the art. and the letter )," he attempted to penetrate deeper into the subtler parts of the flexion of words; he treated ably of dagesh and raphe, of the gutturals, the vowels and accents and of the letters which are incompatible in the same root; he established correct distinctions and found for them new terms; yet he scarcely passed beyond the rudiments of grammatical treatment. Dividing the alphabet into radical and servile letters, the former being employed in the root (TD), the latter for inflexion and derivation (ND), he fell into manifold errors in the application of this principle; for, reducing all roots to two letters, he was often guided by appearance and sound, rather than etymology. That principle itself is so far interesting, and perhaps correct, as possibly at a very early period the roots of the Shemitic languages consisted of two strong or firm consonants,

supported later by the addition of one weaker letter either before or between or after them. But this process had entirely ceased before the time of Biblical Hebrew, when the third radical, which moreover is in very many cases no weak letter, had become a constant and integral part of the roots. Hence Saruk's dictionary is not seldom confused in arrangement, and though many of the explanations are judicious and acceptable, it betrays an imperfect acquaintance with the exact laws of the language. His merit is to have marked out the full boundaries of Hebrew grammar, and to have prepared the way for its more profitable cultivation." Against this work of Menachem wrote

DUNASH BEN LIBRAT OR LABRAT.

4. Dunash ben Librat or Labrat, called in Hebrew Adonim Hallevi, was born about A.D. 920 at Bagdad, and after having lived for some time in Fez, he also repaired to Cordova, where he wrote his anti-dictionary, under the title “The Book of Answers or Objections." This dictionary, which is of a polemical nature, consists of a minute examination of Saruk's lexicon, giving, in 160 articles, his critical strictures upon Saruk's lexicon, in an alphabetical order; and every article concludes with some terse remark or saying in rhyme. This work was also edited by Filipowski, with notes of Dukes and Kirchheim, London, 1855. The principal points may be summed up in the following:-1, Dunash classifies verbs and adverbs (D) separately, and objects to the derivation of the former from the latter; 2, distinguishes the servile letters of verbs from nouns similar. in form by grammatical rules; 3, shows the advantage of the application of Chaldee and Arabic in the explanation of Hebrew words; 4, points out the proper construction of some verbs; 5, departs in more than twenty-four different verses from the Masoretic reading, wherever he can discover a more appropriate meaning.

The influence which Dunash exercised over grammarians and expositors of the Bible may be seen in the frequent quotations made from his works by the principal lexicographers and commentators, such as Rashi (Exod. xxviii. 28; Num. xi. 8; Isa. xxvii. 11; Eccl. xii. 11); Joseph Cara (on Hos. ii. 9; viii. 6; xiii. 7, &c.); Aben Ezra (on Ps. ix. I; xlii.

.(פקר, שאר עלה פאר

5, &c.); Kimchi (under N, y, NU, PD). In the same spirit Dunash wrote against the grammatical views of Saadiah, under the title of in, which have lately been published by R. Schröter, Breslau, 1866. Dunash died about 980.

The contest begun between Menachem and Dunash continued between their followers. Most prominent of Menachem's followers was—

JEHUDAH BEN DAUD IBN CHAYYÛG.

5. Fehudah ben Daud ibn Chayyûg, called in Arabic Iachja Abn-Sakarijja Fehudah Fâsi, the "chief of grammarians "

כָלהוֹשְׁבֵי מַחְשְׁבוֹת) "and the " master of thinkers ,(רֹאשׁ הַמְדַקְדְקִים)

by), was born at Fez about 1020—1040 A.D.

He was the

first who, after the Arabic model, established the triliteralness of Hebrew stems, as up to his time some of the chief etymologists and expositors, e. g. Saadiah, Menachem, maintained that there were biliteral and even monoliteral stems, and derived, as Aben Ezra, in his Sapha Berurah (ed. Lipman, p. 526), says, 77 from

from a נזה and נטה גן from נגע עש from עשה שב from ישב רד

He, too, was the quiescent letters, It was he, too,

stem consisting of the single letters and . first who discovered the true relation of the forming the Mnemonic 8, and their changes. who arranged the Hebrew verbs according to their conjugations (D), distributing them under two heads: 1, Kal, (p) light, not burdened with any formative additions, and 2, Cabed (1), heavy, being burdened with formative additions, and fixed six conjugations, viz. 1, Kal; 2, Niphal; 3, Hiphil; 4, Hithpael; 5, Paul and Hophal; and 6, Piel. This arrangement has been substantially adopted by all grammarians, and is exhibited in all the regular paradigms of the verbs given by Gesenius and Ewald, and all modern linguists in their Hebrew grammars. These discoveries and scientific principles, Chayyug propounds in three books:-1. The first is called me (according to Ibn Chiquitilla's translation), or лini (as Aben Ezra translates) and treats on the quiescent letters in three divisions. The first division comprises the verbs N' and 'D, the second the verbs '', and the third the verbs. 2. The second is called, and treats of verbs whose second and third

radicals are the same y'y. 3. The third is called TP and treats upon the vowel-points and accents. For a long time known only by fragments and extracts (comp. Morini, Exercitt. Bibl. xiv. p. 433. 521. 528; Wolff, Bibl. Hebr. i. 425; iii. 307; R. Simon, Hist. Crit. i. cap. 31), they have now been edited in Aben Ezra's version with notes from a MS. in Munich, by L. Dukes in his Beiträge, published in connexion with Ewald, iii. Stuttgart, 1844, who also gives an elaborated sketch of the author's life and linguistic discoveries, i. p. 123–125; ii. 155–163; and lately by John W. Nutt, Two Treatises on Verbs containing feeble and double Letters, &c., edited from Bodleian MSS. with an English translation, London, 1870 (132 pp. Hebrew, 15 pp. Arabic, 146 pp. English).

Chayyug compiled also Ganâch and Parchon, but ("The Book of Spices," Aben Ezra.

a dictionary, which is quoted by Ibn is completely lost, like another work p), which is mentioned by

To be continued.)

THE OFFICES OF CHRIST.

BY THE AUTHOR OF "THE TWO WORLDS."5

(Concluded from p. 234)

II. ATONEMENT IN THE NEW COVENANT.

Καταλλαγή.

Rom. v. 11. Our Lord Jesus Christ, by (through dia) whom we have now received the atonement.

-xi. 15. For if the casting away of them be the reconciling (atonement) of the world, &c.

2 Cor. v. 18. God who has reconciled (atoned) us to Himself, and hath given to us the ministry of reconciliation (atonement).

Verse 19. God was in Christ reconciling (atoning) the world unto Himself, and hath committed unto us (put in us) the word of reconciliation (atonement).

The Two Worlds; or, Here and Hereafter. An Epic in Five Books. London: Simpkin, Marshall, and Co