proved to be the same always in concrete combinations of tones, or after it is found to be a common attribute of relations of tone. The next step in instruction is to compare the concrete tones hitherto practiced, or the phrases of the songs learned (step of association). The combinations of tones submitted for comparison can be taken cither from the last or earlier synthetic exercises or from airs learned at home. In any case, only such series of tones should be compared with which the pupils are familiar. Comparisons may follow in different directions and may extend to melodic succession, rhythmic form, strength, tempo quality, etc. The results of these comparisons are fixed in proper technical language. Whatever has proved to be common or general value in the step of association must be isolated and learned in the shortest and most concise form-be it an idea, as key or time, or a law, such as "every measure has the same value," or "a word must not be torn asunder by taking breath." This work forms the next step, that of systematizing or generalizing. Although, in general, it must be maintained that musical ideas and rules, like all that is abstract, can only be derived from the concrete, now and then, for the purpose of rounding off knowledge, a new idea may be presented, when ideas of similar origin are discussed, which may "absorb or apperceive" a new but relative idea. Thus, for instance, the idea of A major may be suggested if the pupils have in the course of their exercises met with those of C, G, F, D, and B major and abstracted the general law. What the pupil has found common to all lessons he may note in a separate book. In this way he writes a kind of "singing school" for himself. As the different parts of synthesis can be treated with a regular insertion of correlative analytic material, so a definite part of the step of systematizing can be directly anticipated by concrete associate material; in other words, every lesson in singing and technical exercise can be followed by an abstraction of its salient points and general facts. Thus, if, by way of example, the newly learned song be compared with one previously studied in regard to quality of tone, what is found to be common may at once be defined in a statement, as, "Both songs are in the key of G;" or "Both songs have measure;" or "Both are to be sung allegro," etc. Several songs being compared, this statement may follow: "All these songs begin and end with C, hence are written in the key of C." The comparison is continued, and interrupted by a process of abstraction. Thus, by induction, and according to the laws of intellectual development, the pupils become possessed of many fundamental musical ideas, laws, and rules. This knowledge would be worth little if the elements of music could only be applied to that concrete material from which they were derived. If, for instance, the key, kind of key, measure, and time could only be applied to those melodies which formed the stock of the pupil's knowledge of songs, the musical education would be sadly deficient. The pupils must, therefore, be directed and practiced in observing and reading other combinations and melodies, and applying the rules and laws to new phrases and songs. Reading easy melodies and "second parts” must be aimed at. This work forms the last of the formal stepsthat of application. If these exercises are extensively practiced during the last year of school, the pupil will be able to tell with tolerable certainty the signature of a new piece, whether it be major or minor, the kind of meter or tempo, etc., and he will, slowly perhaps, but correctly, read the series of tones, i. e., read the notes while singing; he will also observe the rules of breathing, voice culture, and enunciation in songs on which he has received no special instruction. The exercises in application also include the transposition of a melody from one key to another; transcription of a phrase in the different symbols for notes and intervals; the singing of different texts to the same melody; the reproduction of scales, ascending and descending, and using tones as the tonic; the singing of the tones of the triad and its inversion, etc. This is a comprehensive programme of work, but German teachers succeed in carrying it on in elementary schools. The matter gone over in the music lessons is, comparatively speaking, very insignificant. The children learn a far greater number of facts in arithmetic, geography, and grammar. The only difference is that the application of the facts learned is more difficult, owing to the frequent undeveloped musical ear; but as the sense of hearing is developed the difficulties disappear. THE VALUE OF FOLKSONGS (VOLKSLIEDER). From the foregoing exposé of the German method of teaching singing in schools, and from other authoritative sources, it is seen that the Germans pay much attention to their national airs in school, both to sacred and secular songs. It is done upon the principle that in elementary schools it is not the chief object to increase the store of knowledge of the children, but to train their minds to correct modes of thinking, to build up their characters and will power for correct action, to ennoble the emotions to perceive refining sentiments and guide the will, and to generally educate the young rather than instruct them, to use these terms as the Germans do in implying a differentiation which we in this country do not usually accept. In literature, and even in simple language lessons, we naturally use the best selections from the works of classic native writers; in geography we direct the child's attention, first of all, to his home surrounding and the topographical conditions of his own country; in history it is the events and memorable deeds of his own forefathers and countrymen which he studies, and so on through the course of study. We always bear in mind that the civilization and culture of his own nation are the sources from which his own culture derives its strength. Precisely so the Germans proceed in the teaching of music in elementary schools. Of course, music may be severed from its national influence and taught purely as a science and an art, but if taught in that way it does not serve the purpose of a school study which purposes to aid in the child's mental and moral development. Every study in elementary school must do that. The reasons for using the musical treasures of the nation are pedagogical and ethical and eminently sound. The national airs of every nation reflect, more than anything else, its peculiar traits of character, both in text and music. The Slavic songs, mostly written in minor keys, reflect the melancholy mood of these peoples; the wild, weird ditties of Hungary reflect the fierce character of the Magyars; the placid temper of the Scandinavians is seen in their sweet hymns; the Scotch Highlander's sturdiness is noticeable in his songs; the gaiety of the southern Frenchman, the cheerfulness of the Tyrolean and the Swiss-all these peculiarities are plainly discernible in the native songs and lays of these peoples. The vast treasures of mind, soul, and heart of the German nation have from time immemorial been reflected in its folksongs, or popular melodies and rhymes, most of which were composed no one knows by whom, but which were sung by all. From the fourteenth century to the present day the treasures of German popular airs have been increasing. The German "Volkslied" runs through the entire scale of internal and external life of the nation; it courses through feeling and thinking of all layers of society, and it is always true to nature, always grown on home soil, always genuinely German. The popular airs of Germany, both text and melody, are the most fragrant blossoms of the civilization of that country. In these songs, the sources of which never clog, the sounds of joy and merriment are as genuine and sincere as those of sorrow and grief; the tones of mockery and defiance as true as those of wrath and complaint. The heart of the German people pulsates in these songs, and he who studies them will find revealed in them the German nation in all its strength and weakness, in its virtues and faults. A collection of German "Volkslieder" may be considered the secret history of the people. He who knows history can see in these songs that long chain of remarkable historical deeds that have made Germany famous, from the "Nibelungen Saga" down to the "Wacht am Rhein." Everywhere along the line traces are found of events and deeds which alternately raised and degraded the nation. The period in which the sources of popular airs and popular poetry were most prolific was the second half of the fifteenth century and the beginning of the sixteenth century (the era of Reformation). The dried-up court poetry of chivalry in the castles of knights and princes was superseded by the people's poetry; the middle ages were sung to their grave and a new era was welcomed. But like the ancient stories of classic Hellas and mythical Germany, so have the songs and airs changed by adapting themselves to many new moods, conditions, and sentiments. Most of the airs now in use were composed or remodeled during the second half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth centuries. Of most of these we are able to state definitely both poet and composer. A list of these is here added. Hölty, Ludw. C. Keil, Georg. Kerner, Justinus. Kleinschmidt, E. C. Körner, Theodor. Kosegarten, L. Th. Kotzebue, August. Novalis, Fr. von Harden- Overbeck, Christ. A. Rückert, Friedr. Rudolphi, Caroline von. Schenkendorf, Max von. Lavater, Joh. Kaspar. Lessing, Gottl. Ephr. Schmidt, Geo. Ph. Schmidt, Klamer. Schneckenburger, Max. Sturm, Marcellin. Tiedge, Christ. Aug. Uhland, Ludwig. Urner, Barbara. Usteri, Martin. LIST OF COMPOSERS OF GERMAN FOLKSONGS. NOTE.-Many German “Volkslieder" are adaptations, both in text and music, of songs in vogue during the Middle Ages and the time of the "Minnesänger," hence some modern composers are credited with having composed the music and some poets of having written the words to songs that bear evidences of a much older age; but there is no way of arriving at definite conclusions concerning their origin, hence the names of poets and composers to whom the songs are credited nowadays are men tioned in this list. There are numerous of which neither poet nor composer are known; they have been collected Heians, such as the brothers Lud |