together with the amount of compensation fixed upon. If no valid objection is received by the State superintendent within thirty days, he commissions the superintendent for the term for which he was elected. The salary of the superintendent is paid by the central board of education in the same manner as the salaries of teachers are paid.

The superintendent must either by himself or by such person or persons as he may appoint examine all persons who may apply for appointment as teachers, and must give to each one found qualified a proper certificate. No teacher may be employed without such certificate.

DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA. (WASHINGTON CITY.)

The organization of the District of Columbia is unique, and the school system presents so many peculiarities that its features can not be satisfactorily shown without a brief statement of the circumstances that led up to the present conditions.

Prior to 1871 the District was composed of three distinct corporations, independent of each other but all amenable to the control of the Congress of the United States. These corporations were the city of Washington, the city of Georgetown, and the levy court, which governed the county, or that part of the District which lay outside the limits of the two cities. The city of Washington was the most populous and most important of the three corporations.

SCHOOLS IN THE CITY OF WASHINGTON.

The first act of the city of Washington relative to schools was passed in 1804 by the city council, and established "a permanent institution for the education of the youth of the city of Washington." Superintendence of the schools was placed under the direction of 13 trustees, 7 of whom were elected annually by the councils and 6 were chosen by those who contributed $10 for the promotion of schools, each contributor having as many votes as he had contributed sums of $10.

In 1816 the city was divided into two districts with separate boards of trustees, who were elected in part by the city councils and in part by contributors as before.

The first real attempt to inaugurate a public-school system in the modern sense was that of 1844, the schools having been previously in the nature of charity schools. The schools were then put in charge of a board of trustees of 12 members elected by the city councils, 3 from each of the 4 school districts, the members from each district constituting a subboard for that district. The method of appointing the trustees was changed in 1858, the mayor receiving authority to appoint with the advice and consent of the board of aldermen. By the same act of the city council the mayor was made ex officio president of the board of trustees, and the appointment of the secretary and the treasurer of the board was also given to him.

In all this time the real control of the schools was in the hands of the

city government, to whom Congress had given power "to provide for the superintendence of the public schools and to endow and collect taxes for the same."

The trustees of the schools received limited powers from the city councils, but the latter reserved the right to suspend or revoke any of those powers and to exercise supervision over all the acts of the board, even to the minutiae of school discipline. The power of making all appropriations, of electing the officers of the board and of altering its organization, of determining the grade and number of schools, and of fixing the salaries of the teachers was retained by the city councils.'

The superintendent.-Provision for a superintendent of public schools. was made in 1869, and his salary was fixed at $2,500 a year. He was appointed by the mayor, with the advice and consent of the board of aldermen, was directed to preside at the meetings of the board in the absence of the mayor, and was entitled to vote on all questions before the board. Later in the same year the power and importance of the office were curtailed, and the superintendent was made practically the executive officer of the board. It was then made his duty to carry into execution the rules and regulations of the board of trus tees; to visit the schools, that he might obtain, as far as practicable, a personal knowledge of the condition of all the schools and be able to suggest improvements and remedy defects; to pay particular attention to the classification of pupils, and assist the board of trustees in establishing a uniform system of instruction; to advise teachers as to the best method of instruction and discipline, and to carefully observe the manner in which they conducted their schools. Whenever he found any teacher incompetent, he was required to report the same to the subboard of that district. To him was given, under rules established by the trustees, the general superintendence of all the schools of the corporation. He was required to devote his whole time to the duties of his office and keep himself acquainted with the progress of the public-school system in other places, that he might be able to suggest appropriate means for the advancement of the public schools of the city. He might attend any of the meetings of the board and speak on all questions.

No enumeration of the duties of the superintendent has since been made, and presumably these requirements are still in force.

The relations between the first superintendent appointed and the board were neither amicable nor harmonious, and the board in 1870 requested the council to change the method of appointing the superintendent by giving that duty to the board. The request was not granted in the terms in which it was preferred, but a change was soon afterwards made in the office of superintendent. The new appointee was acceptable to the board and the question of a change in the manner of appointment was not agitated further.

Report of the Board of Trustees, 1866-1870, page 10.

Colored schools. In 1862 the colored schools of Washington and Georgetown were organized by act of Congress under a separate board of trustees of three members, one appointed each year for three years by the Secretary of the Interior. These trustees were to receive a share of all moneys appropriated for schools in proportion to the number of colored children to the whole number of children.

The number of trustees was increased from three to nine in 1873 and their appointment was given to the governor of the District.

The superintendency of colored schools was established in 1867.

TERRITORIAL GOVERNMENT.

The three distinct corporations, namely, the city of Washington, the city of Georgetown, and the levy court for the county of Washington, were abolished in 1871, and in their stead was substituted a single Territorial government, having a governor and a legislative assembly. Congress made it the duty of that assembly to maintain a system of free schools in the District, but provided that all the acts of the old corporations should remain in force till repealed.

In August, 1871, the legislative assembly enacted that there should be three boards of school trustees in the District, one for Washington, one for Georgetown, and one for the county.

The board of trustees for the city of Washington was to be composed of 20 members, 5 from each of the 4 school districts of the city. That of Georgetown was to have "2 members from each of the council districts of the city" [it had 5 members in 1873], and the board of the county was to have 7 members. These were all to be appointed by the governor for a term of two years each.

This act, with another act passed two days later, provided for a super intendent of schools, a secretary and treasurer for each of the three school organizations, who were also to be appointed by the governor.

All these trustees and officers were directed to perform the duties of their respective offices, and all laws and ordinances of the three old corporations were declared to be in force in the respective localities. except so far as they might have been affected by the acts of the legis lative assembly.

The act of Congress of 1862 establishing a board of trustees for colored schools of course remained in force, so that there were still four school boards in existence, each independent of the others.

The Territorial government was fruitful in schemes for the physical improvement of the city. The board of public works dominated all the other branches of the government, and their vigorous measures and unusual expenditures necessitated heavy taxation and produced wide-spread dissatisfaction. Congress was forced to apply a heroic remedy, and once more made a radical change in the form of government.1

The City of Washington: Its Origin and Administration, Porter, page 30 et seq.

SCHOOLS UNDER THE COMMISSIONERS.

The Territorial government was abolished in 1874 and in its stead there was inaugurated a government by a commission of three persons, appointed by the President, in whom all the powers and duties of the former governor were vested. Since that time all legislation for the District of Columbia has been done in the Congress of the United States, the executive power being given to the three Commissioners of the District. This arrangement was only provisional at first, but in 1878 a permanent government was established along the main lines of the act of 1874.

In the original act of 1874 establishing the commission they were authorized to abolish any office, to consolidate two or more offices, reduce the number of employees, remove from office, and make appoint. ments to any office authorized by law.

Under the authority thus given the Commissioners abolished the offices of secretary and treasurer of all the four school boards in the District, transferring all their duties, so far as they related to the disbursement of money to the comptroller of the District. They also ordered that the purchase of supplies be made by the comptroller and auditor of the District, subject to the approval of the Commissioners. On August 8, 1874, the same authority consolidated the four school boards into one board of 15 members, 9 of whom were to be residents of Washington, 3 of Georgetown, and 3 of the county. A month later the number was increased to 19, 2 additional members being appointed from Washington and 2 more from the county.

The laws defining the powers and duties of the four former boards. continued to apply to the new board in the performance of their functions for the four classes of schools. More specific reference to the dif ferences in these will be mentioned in subsequent paragraphs.

The new board made no radical changes in the school affairs. The same person had already been made superintendent of the white schools of Washington, of Georgetown, and of the county; there was another superintendent for the colored schools of Washington and Georgetown, and these men continued their former duties. The colored schools of the two cities were continued as a practically separate organization.

In the act of Congress of 1878 providing a permanent government for the District the board of school trustees was abolished and all powers and duties formerly exercised by the old board of trustees were transferred to the Commissioners of the District of Columbia, to whom were given authority to employ such officers and agents and to adopt such provisions as might be necessary to carry into execution the powers and duties imposed.

The Commissioners were directed to appoint from time to time 19 persons, actual residents of the District of Columbia, to constitute the trustees of the public schools of the District and to serve without

compensation for such terms as the Commissioners might fix. These trustees were to have the powers and perform the duties in relation to the care and management of the public schools which were then authorized by law.1

In 1882 the number of trustees was reduced to 9, and in 1895 it was increased to 11, its present number, that the Commissioners might appoint women on the board, as they were given authority to do.

The trustees are now appointed for varying terms, fixed by the Commissioners at the time of appointment. Their terms have ordinarily been fixed at three years, but of late the Commissioners have been making appointments for one year only. They may be removed at any time by the appointing power.

The superintendents are appointees of the Commissioners, and may be removed at any time, that power having been given by law to the mayor and having descended through the governor to the present Board of Commissioners.

The arrangement made by the board of trustees in respect to colored schools in 1874 continues to the present day, and there are two separate and distinct school systems in the same territory, having the same board of trustees, but with different officers and separate organization in every respect that relates to instruction.

The powers and duties of the present board of trustees are not clearly defined. The law of 1878 was peculiarly constructed. It gave to the District Commissioners all the powers of the old board of trustees, and in the very next paragraph gave to the new board of trustees the powers and duties relating to the care and management of the schools then authorized by law.

This apparent contradiction has at different times given rise to difficulty and misunderstanding. In 1885-86 the then Commissioners advanced the theory that the trustees were merely their agents, and as such were responsible to them. They claimed and exercised the right to control even such minutiæ as the assignment of teachers and their transfer from school to school. In this they were supported by an opinion by the attorney for the District, who held that "whatever is necessary in the way of classification of pupils, grading schools, numbers to each teacher, hours of assembling and length of session, the whole matter of discipline of schools, examination, promotion, criticism of teachers and methods of teaching, the courses of study, the books to be used, and perhaps other matters pertaining to the welfare of the schools are among the powers and duties of the trustees." But, he said, their duties pertain "exclusively to the working power of the educational machinery, which they neither supply, maintain, nor repair. Upon these important matters, supply and repair, their action is advisory only." The Commissioners proposed to issue regulations of their

Act of June 11, 1878, in Supplement to Revised Statutes of the United States, 1874-1891, pages 178, 179.