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Clésinger.

enemy's line" in a naval battle. Visiting London the following year, he had some conferences on the subject with naval officers, among whom was sir Charles Douglas, lord Rodney's captain of the fleet in the memorable action of April 12, 1782, when the experiment was tried for the first time, and a decisive victory gained over the French. The principle was adopted by all British admirals, and led to many signal naval victories. In 1782, C. printed 50 copies of his Essay on Naval Tactics, for private distribution among his friends. It was reprinted and published in 1790; the 2d, 3d, and 4th parts were added in 1797; and the work was republished entire in 1804, with a preface explaining the origin of his discoveries. The maneuver was claimed by sir Howard Douglas for his father, admiral sir Charles Douglas, but C.'s right to it is indisputable. He died, 1812.-His son, JOHN CLERK (lord Eldin), was an eminent Scottish judge.

CLERK, PARISII, an official in the church of England, who leads the responses in a congregation, and assists in the services of public worship, at funerals, etc., but is not in holy orders. There is usually one in each parish. In cathedrals and collegiate churches, there are several of these lay-clerks; and in some cases they form a corporate body, having a common estate, besides payments from the chapter. Before the reformation, the duties were always discharged by clergymen.

CLERK TO THE SIGNET. See WRITER TO THE SIGNET.

CLERMONT, a ço. in s.w. Ohio, on the Ohio and Miami rivers, reached by the Cincinnati, Portsmouth, and Virginia railroad; 496 sq. m.; pop. '90, 33,553. The soil is fertile: productions, wheat, corn, butter, wool, tobacco, etc. Co. seat, Batavia.

CLERMONT (in the middle ages, Clarus Mons, or Clarimontium) is the name of several towns in France. The most important is the capital of the department of Puy-de-Dôme, Clermont-Ferrand (the Augustonemetum of the Romans, in the country of the Arverni), which is finely situated on a gentle elevation between the rivers Bedat and Allier, at the foot of a range of extinct volcanoes. crowned by the peak of Puy-de-Dôme, about 5 m. distant from the town. It consists of the two towns of C. and Montferrand, upwards of a mile distant from one another, and connected by a fine avenue of trees. C. contains several remarkable buildings: the old Gothic cathedral, the corn and linen hall, the theatre, and the hôtel-dieu, or hospital. C. has several educational and scientific institutions, and a public library, in which are preserved some curious MSS. Pop. '96, 50,870, who carry on a variety of manufactures, and an extensive traffic in the produce of the district, and in the transit trade between Paris and the s. of France. There are two mineral springs in the town, which are used for bathing. That of St. Alyre is most remarkable, having deposited in the course of ages an immense mass of limestone; and the deposit at one part forms over a rivulet a natural bridge 21 ft. long. The whole district abounds in such springs. A multitude of Roman antiquities attest the Roman origin of the city. In the middle ages, C. was the residence of the counts of the same name, and became the seat of one of the oldest bishoprics of France. Several ecclesiastical councils were held here, the most remarkable of which was that in 1095, at which the first crusade was instituted by Urban II. A statue has been erected to Pascal, who was a native of Clermont.

CLERMONT EN BEAUVOISIS (Clermont Sur OISE), a t. in France. 36 m. n. of Paris; pop. '91, 5617. The town-hall, and church of St. Simon, date from the 13th c., and the hill on which the town is built is surmounted by an old castle of the 10th or 11th c., used in modern times as a penitentiary for women. C. was an important_post in the middle ages. It was frequently taken and retaken in the wars with the English, and in 1487 it was surrendered to them as a ransom for the French leader, La Hire. Cassini, the astronomer, was born here.

CLEROMANCY (Gk., Klêros, lot manteia, divination), a kind of divination practised by throwing black and white beans, little bones, lots, or dice, and observing and interpreting according to certain rules the points or marks turned up.

CLE'RUS, a genus of insects of the order coleoptera, section pentamera, and of the great family or sub-section serricornes. They are beautiful beetles, generally found on flowers, and often on those of umbelliferous plants, but their larvæ feed on the larvæ of different kinds of bees: those of C. apiarius-a rare insect in Britain, but common in some parts of Europe-on the larvæ of the hive-bee. It is about half an inch long, greenish, the wing-cases scarlet with purplish blue bands. How the larvæ of this and other insects should be able to carry on their ravages with impunity in a bee-hive, has never yet been satisfactorily explained.

CLÉRY, JEAN BAPTISTE. 1759-1809; one of the devoted friends of Louis XVI., and one of the few attendants permitted to share his prison. A few days before the king's execution Louis shared a loaf of bread with C., that being the only proof of regard he was able to show him. C. published an account of the king's imprisonment.

66

CLÉSINGER, JEAN BAPTISTE AUGUSTE, born 1814; a French sculptor who first became noted by his bust of Scribe. Among a great many works from his chisel are "Girl Bitten by a Serpent," "Liberty, Fraternity," Gypsy Girl," Cleopatra in the Presence of Cæsar, statues of Louise of Savoy and Sappho; equestrian statues of Francis I. and Napoleon I., for the Louvre; busts of Charlotte Corday, the emperor of

Russia, etc. Clésinger married the daughter of the famous French authoress, George Sand. He d. in 1883.

CLETHRA, a genus of shrubs of the order ericaceae, containing 2 species: c. alnifolia, the white alder or sweet pepperbush, found from Canada to the gulf, and c. acuminata, common along the southern Alleghanies. The flowers are white, and those of c. alnifolia, fragrant.

CLEVELAND (Cliff-land), a hilly district, with some picturesque fertile valleys, forming the e. part of the N. Riding of Yorkshire between Whitby and the Tees, and giving its name to a parliamentary division. Geologically, it consists of inferior oolite, but the coast and w. border are formed of lies. In the s. the hills rise 1300 to 1850 ft. Since 1851, hamlets have become populous towns, owing to the discovery of ironstone in the hills. See MIDDLESBROUGH.

CLEVELAND, a city, port of entry, and co. seat of Cuyahoga co., O., the second city of the state in commerce and population, lies on the s.w. shore of Lake Erie, at the mouth of the Cuyahoga river; lat. 41° 30′ 5′′ n.; long. 81° 42′ 6′′ w.; 138 m. n.e. of Columbus and 244 m. n.e. of Cincinnati. It has an altitude of 580 ft. above the sea; a mean summer temperature of 69.68°; winter, 28.32°. C. was surveyed in 1796 by Gen. Moses Cleaveland, agent and director of the 'Connecticut land company, which purchased the western reserve, including the site of the city. It obtained its first settler in 1797, but its early growth was very slow, and in 1830 it contained but 1035 inhabitants. Its first impetus was received in 1834 from the completion of the Ohio canal, connecting Lake Erie with the Ohio river at Portsmouth. During the war it made rapid progress because of the extraordinary demand for its principal products. Its pop. in 1890 was 261,353. Nine railroads enter the city, and five others have direct communication with it. Among the former are the Clev., Cin., Chic. and St. Louis, the Lake Shore and Mich. Southern, the N. Y., Chic. and St. Louis ("Nickel Plate"), and the N. Y., Lake Erie and Western. There are also many lines of steamers to the various lake ports. C. has remarkable advantages for the accommodation of its shipping. Two parallel piers built out 1200 ft. into the lake form a channel 200 ft. wide at the mouth of the river, and the many windings of the latter afford more than a dozen miles of conveniently accessible docks within the city. A branch of the Cuyahoga flowing westward, not far from the lake, and parallel with it, has been dredged out so as to make an excellent ship canal. In 1878, at an estimated cost of $1,800,000, the U. S. govt. began a breakwater to enclose a harbor of refuge, 360 acres in extent, with an opening of 500 ft. opposite the mouth of the river. The total length of the completed breakwater will be about 10,000 feet. The city is beautifully situated on elevated land which slopes gently toward the lake, and is divided unevenly by the C. river, the larger portion lying on the e. side of that stream. It is also intersected by Kingsbury and Walworth "runs," the e. and w. tributaries of the Cuyahoga. The land bordering the river is low and flat, and here lie many of the factories and car-shops, almost hidden from view. Among the many bridges spanning the C. and uniting the e. and w. sections of the city is a stone and iron viaduct, a remarkable work of engineering, completed in 1878 at a cost of $2,250,000. Its length is 3211 ft., and its width 64 ft. It has a drawbridge 332 ft. long, which is 68 ft. above the water level. The central viaduct, completed in 1888, extends across the river and connects with one which crosses Walworth run. The combined length of the two is 3931 ft., and there is a drawbridge 239 ft. long. A smaller viaduct (835 ft. long) spans Kingsbury run.

From the abundance of its shade trees, C. has been called the "Forest City." Its streets are from 80 to 100 ft. wide. Superior st., the main business thoroughfare, is 132 feet wide. It begins on the east side of the river near the lake and runs parallel with the latter. It soon reaches Monumental park, so called from the statue of Gen. Moses Cleaveland and the Soldiers' monument, which adorn it. This park has an area of 10 acres, and is divided into 4 squares by intersecting streets. From it the principal streets on the east side of the city diverge, somewhat like huge spokes in the section of a wheel. The far-famed Euclid avenue begins here, and extends beyond Lake View cemetery, over six miles. Near M. park this avenue is used for business purposes, but for the remainder of its length is built up with handsome private residences surrounded by tasteful and well-shaded grounds. Prospect st., just south of Euclid avenue, is but little inferior to it.

Among the many fine parks belonging to the city the largest is the magnificent Gordon park, received in 1892 by the bequest of W. J. Gordon. The beautiful Wade park (63 acres), presented to the people by its owner, J. H. Wade, in 1882, contains the statue of Com. Perry, formerly in Monumental park. Lakeview park on the lake shore (10 acres), and Southside park (9 acres), and the Circle on the west side of the river are also worthy of mention. Lakeview, the principal cemetery of C., contains more than 300 acres. Its great natural advantages and the skillful and tasteful manner in which they have been improved have made it one of the most beautiful in the country. Here stands the monument erected in 1890 to the memory of Garfield at a cost of $130,000, from the top of which a fine view of the city and its suburbs may be obtained.

Among the noteworthy buildings are the U. S. building, containing the custom bouse, post-office, and rooms for the federal courts; the building of the Society for

Cleveland.

Savings, city hall, county court houses, masonic temple, New England building (13 stories), C. medical college, homoeopathic college, city infirmary, medical dept. of Wooster University, Union depot, Case hall, Northern Ohio Insane Asylum; public library; hospital; Case school of applied science, Adelbert college, formerly the Western Reserve college, removed from Hudson, O., to Cleveland and endowed with $500,000 by Amasa Stone in memory of his son; the Y. M. C. A. building, the new market, the Plymouth Cong., First Pres., and St. Paul's Epis. churches, and the R. C. cathedral. The ample watersupply of the city is pumped into large reservoirs from two tunnels sunk 90 ft. below the surface of the ground and running out for 14 miles to a crib at the bottom of the lake. The business establishments reporting in 1890 numbered 2307; capital, $69,732,761; hands, 50,674; wages paid, $28,355,505; and the value of the products, $113,240,115. The manufactures include iron and steel, refined petroleum, woolen goods, sulphuric acid, wooden ware, agricultural implements, sewing-machines, railroad cars, marble, bricks, white lead, aluminium, bicycles, wire, safes, bolts and screws, etc.

At the mouth of Kingsbury run are the Standard oil works, covering several acres. The refining of petroleum is one of the leading industries. Seven establishments in 1890 reported a capital of $10,426,698. In shipbuilding, 8 establishments reported a capital of $2,562,775. The annual value of its steel and iron product is over $36,000,000. In 1896 the commerce of the Cuyahoga district was, imports, $1,498,371, exports, $1,948,995; the city had an area of 32 sq. m., the assessed valuations exceeded $135,000,000; and the net debt was over $5,700,000.

In Apr., 1891, a new city charter, intended to separate the legislative and executive branches of the municipal government, went into effect. An elective mayor has the power to appoint a cabinet of six members, subject to the confirmation of the municipal legislature, which consists of twenty councilmen, two for each of the ten districts into which the forty wards of the city are divided. Each member of the mayor's cabinet is director of a department (law, public works, accounts, police, fire, and charities and correction), and has the absolute power to appoint the subordinate officers in his own department, although firemen and policemen are under the protection of the Civil Service Reform rules. The mayor and directors constitute a " Board of Control." The city treasurer, police judge, prosecuting attorney, and clerk of the police court are elected by the people.

CLEVELAND, town and co. seat of Bradley co., Tenn., on the Southern railroad; 30 m. e. of Chattanooga, in an agricultural and fruit-growing region; has manufactures of woolens, leather, woodenware, stoves, pumps, brick, and terra-cotta, flour, etc., churches, Centenary female college, weekly newspapers, an opera house, banks, waterworks and street railroads. Pop. '90, 2863.

CLEVELAND, a co. in s. Arkansas; formed 1873; name changed from Dorsey, 1885; crossed by Saline river; w. boundary, Bayou Maro; soil fertile, with extensive forests of cypress, hickory, pine, and gum; 693 sq. m. Pop. '90, 11,362. Co. seat, Rison.

CLEVELAND, CHARLES DEXTER, 1802-69; a native of Massachusetts, graduated at Dartmouth in 1827; professor of Latin and Greek at Dickinson college, and of Latin in the university of the city of New York. In 1861 he was appointed U. S. consul at Cardiff, Wales. Among his publications are The Moral Characters of Theophrastus; Compendium of Grecian Antiquities; Compendium of Grecian Literature; Hymns for Schools; English Literature of the Nineteenth Century; and Lyra Americana.

CLEVELAND, JOHN, 1613-58, English poet. He was on the Royalist side in the Civil War and was appointed judge-advocate in the king's army. He satirized the Parliamentarians, and in 1655 was imprisoned for a short time, but Cromwell ordered his release. His works were very popular in their day, but his serious verses have little merit.

CLEVELAND, STEPHEN GROVER, twenty-second President of the U. S., was born at Caldwell, Essex co., N. J., 1837, March 18. When he was three years old his father, a Pres. minister, received a call to Fayetteville, N. Y. Young C. was educated in the public school of that village and in an academy in Clinton, N. Y. The death of his father, 1853, threw him on his own resources at the age of sixteen, and he became bookkeeper and assistant teacher in the New York institution for the blind. Two years later he started for the west, intending to settle in Cleveland, O., and study law. But while passing through Buffalo, his uncle, William F. Allen, induced him to remain in that city, and entered him as a student with a prominent law firm. He was admitted to practice, 1859; became assistant dist.-atty. for Erie co., 1863; was the Democratic candidate for dist. atty., 1865, but was defeated at the polls; and in 1870 was elected sheriff of the county. At the conclusion of his term of office he became a member of the law firm of Bass, Cleveland & Bissell, which in 1881 became Cleveland, Bissell & Sicard. In Nov., 1881, he was nominated Democratic candidate for mayor of Buffalo. That city was strongly Republican, but long-continued tenure of office had engendered flagrant corruption, and good men of all parties joined to uproot it. C. was elected by a handsome majority. He reorganized the departments under his charge on business principles, conquered corrupt combinations, and promptly vetoed all measures which savored of extravagance or jobbery. In 1882 he received the Democratic nomination for gov. of N. Y. His opponent was Charles J. Folger, then secretary of the treasury under Pres. Arthur. The Republican party in the

state was divided, and among the independent voters there was strong dissatisfaction with the methods which had secured Mr. Folger's nomination. Mr. C.'s reputation as a reformer was also in his favor. He was elected by the extraordinary majority of 192,854. For the most part his conduct as governor was marked by integrity and good judgment, and he was early spoken of as a candidate for the presidency. At the Democratic national convention, July, 1884, he was the leading candidate on the first ballot, and in spite of a zealous minority of delegates from his own state, secured the necessary twothirds of all the votes on the second ballot. A large body of Independent Republicans declared in his favor, but the accession of this new element was partly offset by the defection of many Democrats. C. received 219 electoral votes as against 182 for his opponent, these votes, beside those of all the southern states, including those of Conn., N. Y., N. J., and Ind. He was inaugurated 1885, March 4; married, 1886, June 2, to Miss Frances Folsom. His term was mainly characterized by his very bold advocacy of a reduction of tariff duties, and by his opposition to what he considered unworthy bills. During the session ending Aug. 5, 1886, he vetoed 115 out of 987 bills that had passed both houses of congress. Of this number, 102 were private pension bills. During this same session he directly antagonized the senate by refusing to give that body his reasons for removing certain officers or to deliver up the papers ordering said changes; claiming that the president is not amenable to congress for such acts, and that the papers were not official documents. Considering the immense difficulties surrounding such an undertaking, his supporters maintain that his civil service reform pledges were carried out as consistently as possible. He was renominated for the presidency at St. Louis, June 7, 1888, but was defeated, receiving only 168 electoral votes to Harrison's 233. On the expiration of his term of office he resumed, in New York city, the practice of law, but still kept in touch with the political interests of his party. At the National Democratic Convention of June, 1892, although opposed by the delegation of his own state, he was nominated for the presidency on the first ballot,, and on the election in November was elected, receiving 277 electoral votes as against 145 for Harrison and 22 for Weaver. Leading events of his second term were the withdrawal of the Hawaian annexation treaty (1893), his attempt to restore Queen Liliuokalani, the gold drain, by which several issues of bonds became necessary (1894), great railroad strike in the summer of 1894, the appointment of the Venezuelan commission (1896), and his settlement as arbitrator of several foreign boundary disputes.

CLEVES (Ger. Kleve), a t. of Rhenish Prussia, 48 m. n. w. of Düsseldorf. It is situated on three gentle elevations, about 24 m. from the Rhine, with which it communicates by canal, in the midst of a rich and beautiful country. It is divided into an upper and a lower t., is well built, in the Dutch fashion, and surrounded by walls. It has a fine old castle, partly built on a commanding rock, in which Anne of Cleves, one of the wives of Henry VIII., was born, and an ancient collegiate church. C. has manufactures of machinery, tobacco, etc. Pop. '90, 10,409. C. was anciently the capital of a duchy extending along both banks of the Rhine, and which passed by marriage to the reigning house of Prussia.

CLEW. The lower corner of a square sail, or the after corner of a fore-and-aft sail. Hammock clews are the small nettles by which it is suspended. Clew-garnet, a rope used for hauling up the clew of a course. Clew-iron, a shackle-shaped iron in the clews of large sails. Clew-jigger and clew-line, used for hauling up the clews of top-sails, the latter is also used on top-gallant sails and royals to clew up the sails.

CLEW BAY, an inlet of the Atlantic, on the w. coast of Mayo co., Ireland, 15 m. long by 8 broad. Some of the mountains on the n. rise 1200 to 2500 ft., but the land on the e. is lower, and leads to Westport, Newport, and Castlebar.

CLICHÉ (Fr.), the impression made by a die in melted tin, or other fusible metal. It is the proof of a medalist's or die-sinker's work, by which they judge of the effect, and ascertain the stage of progress which they have reached before the die is hardened. The same term is applied by the French to stereotype casts from wood-cuts.

CLICHY LA GARENNE, a suburb of Paris, in the department of Seine, about four m. n.w. of the capital. Pop. '91, 30,698.

CLICK-BEETLE, the popular name of many species of coleopterous insects of the tribe elaterides (see ELATER), the parents of the destructive larvæ too well known to farmers by the name of wire-worms (q. v.). They derive the name click-beetle from the sound which they make when, being laid on their back on any hard substance, they regain their feet by a spring, in the manner characteristic of the tribe to which they belong. The British species are numerous, the largest not quite half an inch long; none of them brilliantly colored; all very similar in form, rather elongated, and the thorax and abdomen nearly of equal breadth throughout. SKIP-JACK is another popular name for them. The striped click-beetle (agriotes [cataphagus or elater] lineatus) is the parent of a very destructive kind of wire-worm. See illus., BEETLES, ETC., vol. II.

CLIFF-DWELLERS, inhabitants of dwellings built on projections from the face of cliffs, or cut out of the solid rock, found in various parts of the world. The ancestors of the present Pueblo Indians built such houses in the canyons and cliffs of New Mexico

and the neighboring country. In some instances the houses are four stories high, and divided into many rooms. Often they are not to be distinguished from the rest of the cliff. They were probably reached by ladders and designed as strongholds. Walnut canyon in n.e. Arizona has a row of cliff dwellings extending more than five miles. S.w. Colorado is the region richest in these remains. The cliff-villages are also found farther south. Such a town, Atitlan, was inhabited at the time of the Spanish conquest. But, with the probable exception of the Pueblos, the race is now extinct. In the eastern hemisphere similar remains are found in the island of Thora, in the Greek archipelago; at Petra in Arabia Petræa; at Assos in Asia Minor; in the island of Minorca, and especially in the remarkable cliff-town Albinon in the canton of Valais, Switzerland.

CLIFFORD, JOHN HENRY, LL.D., 1809-76, b. R. I., graduated at Brown univ., 1827; attained an eminent position at the bar; was in the Mass. legislature, and at one time president of the senate; appointed atty.-gen. of Mass.; elected gov. 1853. He was again atty.-gen. for four years; and was for a time pres. of the board of overseers of Harvard univ.

CLIFFORD, NATHAN, 1803-81; b. Rumney, N. H. He graduated at the Hampton literary institution, supporting himself during his studies; was admitted to the bar, and commenced practice in York co., Me., 1827. He was in the state legislature as a Democrat, 1830-34, was elected to congress, 1838, was U. S. atty.-gen. in the cabinet of Pres. Polk, and from 1858 until his death was associate justice of the supreme court of the U. S.

CLIFFORD, WILLIAM KINGDON, F.R.S., late prof. of applied mathematics and mechanics at University college, London, and one of the foremost mathematicians of his time, was b. at Exeter, May 4, 1845. He was educated at a school in his native town, at King's college, London, and at Trinity college, Cambridge. While at Trinity, he did not confine himself to examination subjects, but read largely in the great mathematical writers, and was second wrangler in the mathematical tripos of 1867. At this time, while excelling in gymnastics, he would also solve and propound problems in the pages of the Educational Times, and could discuss with ease complicated theorems of solid geometry without the aid of paper or diagram. A high-churchman at first, C. before taking his degree threw off all conventional restraints, and eagerly discussed some of the religious questions of the day. In Aug., 1871, he was elected to the chair of mathematics and mechanics at University college, London, which post he retained until his untimely death at Madeira, Mar. 3, 1879. C. first established his reputation as an original thinker with the faculty of expressing scientific thought in plain and simple language by a lecture at the royal institution, On Some of the Conditions of Mental Development. He was a valued member of the London mathematical society, contributing to the Proceedings; for a time he acted as secretary, and afterwards vice-president of the mathematical and physical section of the British association; he also lectured to the Sunday lecture society on such subjects as Ether; Atoms; and The Sun's Place in the Universe. The versatility of his mind for philosophical and scientific discussion was further shown by his varied contributions to periodical literature. Besides these articles, he issued the first part of a larger text-book, Elements of Dynamics (1878).-See C.'s Lectures and Essays, edited by Leslie Stephen and F. Pollock, 1879.

CLIFTON, a beautiful and favorite watering-place in the s. w. of Gloucestershire, forming the western suburb and part of the parliamentary borough of Bristol. It is built on the sides and top of a carboniferous limestone hill, 308 ft. high; commands fine picturesque views; and is separated from a similar cliff by a deep chasm on the s., through which flows the navigable Avon. The rock abounds in fossils and quartz, or Bristol diamonds. It has a tepid spring of 73° F. which contains carbonic acid and salts of magnesia, and was brought into notice about 1695. Population, 1891, about 29,300. See BRISTOL.

CLIFTON SPRINGS, a village and health resort in Manchester and Phelps tps., Ontario co., N. Y. It is on the Lehigh Valley and the N. Y. Central and Hudson River railroads, 10 m. e.n.e. of Canandaigua; is situated amid beautiful scenery, and is famous for its calcic sulphur waters, which have been found useful for many complaints. Another spring is highly charged with carbonic acid. The sanitarium connected with the springs is a well-known institution, and the village has a seminary, a union school, churches, and a weekly newspaper. Several deposits of salt have been discovered here. Pop. 1890, 1297.

CLIFTON, or SUSPENSION BRIDGE, former name of the town of NIAGARA FALLS (q. v.), Ontario, Canada.

CLIMACTERIC YEAR. It was long believed that certain years in the life of man had a peculiar significance to him, and were the critical points, as it were, of his health and fortunes. The mystical number 7 and its multiples (e.g., 35, 49) constituted crises of this kind. The most important of all was the 63d year, called, by way of eminence, the "climacteric year" or "grand climacteric," which was supposed to be fatal to most