building (1830-1855) was one of remarkable expansion. The population increased from 2,175,000 (1835) to 3,466,000 (1855). There were 60 inhabitants to each square mile (1850). Hamlets developed into villages, and villages into cities. When the first shovel of dirt was dug for the railroads there was not a single city west of Schenectady, but Utica and Buffalo were incorporated in 1832, Brooklyn and Rochester in 1834, Syracuse in 1847, and Auburn and Oswego, the "little New Yorks," in 1848. The wealth of the state was valued at $1,080,000,000 (1850).

New York City, the heart, pumped the life-blood of trade to and from every corner of the state. Big business enterprises could be conducted with ease at great distances from the seaport. Hence more factories were built, mills increased, stores multiplied, and money was lavishly invested. It was an era of great things. More was done in New York within a quarter of a century than in Europe in several centuries.

Cities and Villages felt a new life stimulating them. In 1850 Buffalo had a smaller population than Albany -only 42,000—but in five years it went up to 74,000— 80 per cent! The lake trade had become enormous. Buffalo was the distributing station for the western country. Factories and stores were thriving. Syracuse had changed from a village of 7,000 (1840) to an active city of 25,000 (1855), and was fast becoming famous for salt-factories. The population of Rochester more than tripled in twenty years-from 14,500 (1835) to 44,000 (1855)—and had gained a world-wide reputation through its flour-mills. Utica grew from

10,000 (1835) to 22,000 (1855). Oswego had 16,000 inhabitants, Auburn 9,500, and Troy 33,000 (1855). Brooklyn had increased nine-fold-from 24,500 (1835) to 205,500 (1855)—but Hudson, Schenectady, and Poughkeepsie had made little progress.

All

New York City gained more than any other. railroads ran to her marts and there unloaded their burdens for sale or shipment across the seas. Merchants came from all directions to buy their summer and winter supplies. Great wholesale and retail houses arose. Brokers and shippers came into existence. The city became the recognized business head of the western hemisphere. During the first half of the century her population had more than doubled every decade, and in 1855 had reached 630,000. Her exports amounted to $99,000,000, and her imports reached $196,000,000 (1856). It took over 4,000 cartmen to do the transferring of goods, and 600 omnibuses to care for the passengers. The 32 churches of 1800 were 260 fifty years later, while 250 public schools educated 80,000 children.

Industry. The railroads did even more for industry than the canals. Now working men began to leave the farm to enter mines and shops newly opened by the hundreds. There were about 24,000 establishments (1850), employing 200,000 hands and $100,000,000 capital, and producing $240,000,000 worth of goods. This was far ahead of any other state. The chief articles made were farming implements, $3,000,000; metal tools and fixings, $43,000,000; cloth, $20,000,000; chemicals, $62,000,000; steam-engines and ships, $13,000,000; grist-mills, $52,000,000; lumber-mills, $24,000,000; pottery and glass, $10,000,000; leather, $28,000,000;

household goods, $9,000,000; fine arts, $8,000,000; and clothing, $22,000,000.

Agriculture. From 1835 to 1855 improved land increased from 10,000,000 to 13,700,000 acres. There were 361,000 owners of land. The farm produce was enormous. There were raised over 9,000,000 bushels of wheat, 27,000,000 of oats, 20,000,000 of corn, 5,000,000 of potatoes, 4,000,000 of rye, 14,000,000 of apples, and 3,000,000 of buckwheat, besides many other grains and fruits. Over 3,000,000 tons of hay were moved. Garden produce amounted to over $2,500,000. In the spring 5,000,000 pounds of maple sugar were made and 85,000 gallons of syrup. During the summer over 2,500,000 pounds of honey and 138,000 pounds of beeswax were secured. About 90,000,000 pounds of butter and 40,000,000 pounds of cheese were made.

General Improvement in Farming. These figures show that the farmers and their wives and families were not idle. Yet they only show a part of the real produce of the farms. Improved machinery enabled the farmer to do four times as much as before. The land was cleared of stones and stumps. The reaping and mowing machine replaced the sickle and cradle for harvesting grains and hay. Plows and harrows were improved. Many other inventions made farming easier and more profitable. But the greatest benefit was the good markets brought by the canal and railroad. The number of horses, cattle, swine, and sheep had increased comparatively little in the twenty years. Over 9,000,000 pounds of wool were grown, however, in 1855.

CHAPTER XLI.-EDUCATION AND LITERATURE

Public Schools. During this period there was more interest in education than ever before. The legislature decided" to arouse the public attention to the important subject of education, and, by adopting a system of common schools, in the expense of which the state would largely participate, to bring instruction within the reach of the humblest citizen." Education by the state had become a clear duty and not a begrudged act of charity. But the extension of the free public school up through the high school to the college was yet to be worked out. In 1840 573,000 children were being educated in 11,000 districts.

Educational Progress.-District school libraries were suggested as early as 1830, established in 1835, and given $55,000 in 1838. Many of these books are still scattered over the state. They have done a great deal of good and enlightened many a mind. The cities were imitating the Public School Society of New York. The great educator, Horace Mann, said in 1845, "The great state of New York is carrying forward the work of public education more rapidly than any other state in the Union or any other country in the world." This was a glowing tribute to the great statesmen and educators who developed New York's educational system. County superintendents were elected in 1841, but for political reasons this method of selecting them was soon abolished and was not revived again until 1856. Trained Teachers. As the schools grew a demand for trained teachers arose. Some academies attempted this

work (1835), but the first school for the purpose was the Albany Normal School (1851). The first teachers' institute was held at Ithaca (1843), and soon it became a permanent institution. The secret "Society of Associated Teachers" in New York City (1794) led to county and town organizations (1830). The first state convention of teachers was held at Utica (1830), and annually afterward. The State Teachers' Association was formed at Syracuse (1845). In 1854 the first superintendent of public instruction, Victor M. Rice, was appointed by the legislature for three years.

No Free-school System.-Still the state had no freeschool system. Some districts made their schools free. The schools received a large sum from the state, $1,600,000 in 1850, but not enough to pay all expenses. Hence parents paid “rate-bills " in proportion to the number of days their children went to school. In 1840 $475,000 was raised in this way. This system lasted till 1867. A cry arose for free schools, and the "rate-bills" were denounced as unjust to the poor. The legislature finally submitted the question of their abolition to the people. (1849), when 250,000 persons favored making the state educate the children of the state" and 92,000 opposed it. The matter was compromised by letting the rate-bills stand for 16 years, but at the same time relieving the parents by a state tax of $800,000.

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Newspapers and Magazines.-One of the evidences of progress in general intelligence is seen in the increase of magazines and newspapers, which numbered 428 in 1850 and had a circulation of 1,625,000. There were 51 dailies, 308 weeklies, and 36 monthlies. Five years later the number had increased to 571-73 dailies, 411