weeklies, and 113 monthlies. The total circulation in 1860 was 6,000,000. The New York Tribune, established by Horace Greeley as a penny paper (1841), first used the Atlantic cable to get foreign news. The New York Times, famous for helping to destroy the Tweed Ring, was established (1851) and edited by Henry J. Raymond. Notwithstanding the growth in schools and the increase of newspapers, there were 99,000 illiterates in the state, 68,000, however, being foreign-born (1850).

Literature during the Revolution. Little of real literary merit was produced during the Revolution. Dr. Myles Cooper, Rev. Samuel Seabury, and Charles Inglis wrote keen, logical pamphlets on the loyalist side. Alexander Hamilton and John Jay wrote most of the essays in the Federalist in support of the constitution of 1787. Philip Freneau, the first American poet of note, wrote much political prose and verse on the Antifederalist side. Thomas Paine, author of "Common Sense," closed his life in New York. William Dunlap, artist, playwright, and scholar, wrote a History of New York and some other works. Charles Brockden Brown, the earliest romance-writer, published his first novel in New York. Lindley Murray produced an English Grammar and an English Reader.

Writers after the Revolution. In 1806 Washington Irving published the first of his many works. works. He was the first American author whose books obtained recognition abroad. He helped to give New York a place of honor in the world of literature. His works, from Salmagundi" and "Knickerbocker's History of New York" to the "Life of Washington," stand among

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the highest of their class in literature. James Kirke Paulding, a friend and co-laborer of Irving, wrote about scenes and subjects wholly American. James Fenimore Cooper, the first American novelist of distinction, gained a world-wide reputation through his 34 sea-tales and "Leather Stocking" stories. Joseph Rodman Drake, remembered for his poems, " The Culprit Fay" and "The American Flag," and Fritz-Greene Halleck, author of "Marco Bozzaris," were friends of Cooper. Other writers remembered for single pieces were Samuel Woodworth, author of "Old Oaken Bucket "; George Perkins Morris, who wrote "Woodman, Spare that Tree "; Clement C. Moore, who produced "A Visit from St. Nicholas "; Charles Fenno Hoffman, known for the song "Sparkling and Bright and the ballad "Monterey "; Robert H. Messinger, who penned "Give Me the Old"; William Allen Butler, recollected for "Nothing to Wear"; and John Howard Payne of "Home, Sweet Home" fame.

Later Writers.-Another resident of New York of recognized ability was Nathaniel Parker Willis, who wrote a volume of poems and thirteen volumes of prose. Edgar Allan Poe removed to New York in 1838. "The Raven," published in 1845, made him famous. His poems are very beautiful, and his stories are weird and fantastic. As time passes his place becomes more assured among the best American poets. Bayard Taylor wrote many books descriptive of his foreign travels, four novels, and a quantity of poetry. William Cullen Bryant, author of "Thanatopsis," was editor of the New York Evening Post and a leader of literary society. One of the most popular story-writers forty years ago

was Herman Melville, whose sea-tales are compared to those of Cooper. James Macauley wrote the Natural, Statistical, and Civil History of the State of New York, and William Starbuck Mayo wrote two books for boys. New York's Position in Literature. Thus while New York was becoming famous through her canals, manufactures, railroads, commerce, and wealth, she was also gaining through her literary men an enviable reputation both among her sister states and across the sea.

CHAPTER XLII.-SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS

Social Status. At the close of this period the people in all parts of the state were in a better social condition. The constitution of 1846 had abolished feudal rights, and only a few remnants were left. Travel was more common now that the fare from Buffalo to Albany was reduced from $20 to $6.15 in 1853, and similarly on other routes. Provincialism died out in consequence. The log-rolling and the barn-raising began to disappear, though the party and the dance remained. Mass-meetings, political gatherings, and conventions were held. Democracy was prevalent in spirit and practice. Log houses gave way to comfortable frame or brick buildings, and a thousand conveniences unknown before were enjoyed in city and country. The individual counted for more than ever in the history of the state.

Morals and Religion. -Increased wealth, a higher intelligence, and a better social plane had their religious

and moral effects. There were 4,400 ministers in 1845, and five years later 5,000 churches. The Roman Catholics had the largest number of the 703,000 churchmembers, and then in order came Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists, Episcopalians, Reformed Protestants, and Dutch Reformed, with a number of smaller sects. These organizations with their private schools and institutions of charity, their missionary societies, Sundayschools, and other channels of activity, were a powerful factor in pointing the way toward a higher civilization.

Prison Reforms.-Morals were improving. A law forbade lotteries which had once been used to raise money for state, church, and school. No one could any longer be imprisoned for debt. "The Prison Association" was organized (1844) and the Clinton state prison authorized. The humane "Auburn prison system was adopted (1821), to be copied over the world. Homes for the sick, orphaned, blind, deaf and dumb, insane, aged, and other unfortunates were built in various sections and endowed by the benevolent rich. In 1850 there were 10,280 criminals and 60,000 paupers supported at a cost of $818,000. Miss Dorothy L. Dix in 1844 stirred up the second great prison reform. The county poorhouses had become breeders of pauperism and “disgraceful monuments of public charity." They were reorganized and conducted on different principles. Plagues and Disasters.-The state had its plagues and disasters. In 1832 the Asiatic cholera appeared. It spread all over the state and was especially fatal in the cities. In New York half of the 6,000 persons afflicted died, 336 died in Albany, over 100 in Syracuse, and many in Utica, Rochester, and Buffalo. The people were

greatly frightened. Though bad in itself, the cholera led to the creation of a board of health in nearly every city. It reappeared in New York City in 1849 and carried away 3,000 again, and broke out the third time in 1865, but was checked in its ravages. The hygienic reforms resulting from the disease led to the removal of a dozen “burying-grounds " to places outside of the city. The reform was followed in other cities over the state.

Great Fires played havoc in the cities owing to the wooden buildings and lack of protection against fire. The most disastrous were in the metropolis. When Washington evacuated the city in 1776, 493 houses had been burned. A gas-pipe explosion in 1835 caused the burning of 528 houses and the bankruptcy of nearly all the fire-insurance companies. This fire occurred in freezing winter weather, and the suffering was intense. Ten years later 345 buildings, valued at $10,000,000, were burned and many merchants and insurance companies were crippled. The fires were also blessings in a way, for old buildings were replaced by brick and granite structures, and crooked streets were straightened. Like the phoenix, a new city grew up out of the burnt one. Three weeks after the last fire Mr. Hone

wrote in his diary that "fine stores were in process of construction amidst smouldering ruins." Of course the suffering among the poor was very great. Every city in the state has had an experience like New York. When the Chicago fire took place New York sent $3,000,000 in goods and money to the suffering.

Water-supply in New York City.-The cholera led to a denunciation of the drinking-water, and the disastrous fires caused complaints against the fire departments in