From such reports and protocols of the kings-at-arms and their subordinate heralds, were derived the materials of the chivalrous novels and romances. These events were sometimes sung separately, sometimes many were melted together into one narrative, and other incidents or poetical inventions were interspersed as episodes through the tale. As for the rhythm, they chose short lines adapted to music, which were again divided into strophes, because every romance, however long, was by custom so arranged, as to be sung accompanied by a musical instrument. If, as was commonly the case, the romance was too long to be sung at once, it was divided into greater and smaller sections, as the change of the adventures and of the heroes permitted-generally, the herald between such sections, addressed the auditors in a kind of prologue or parabasis, in which he sometimes represented the importance of his romance, and sometimes requested attention to his song.*

The earliest romance of which we have any knowledge, (though long since lost) was composed in French, by a knight who related the real adventures of Godfrey of Bouillon.t

It soon appeared to the clergy in France, that such stories might inspire the people with heroic enthusiasm—they therefore invented and composed in Latin, under the name of Archbishop Turpin, a fabulous life of Charlemagne, to exhort and stimulate all ranks to crusades and other enterprizes in arms, for the honour of the church. The same fabulous chronicle was, in England, turned into a British story, and King Arthur became the hero of the tale.

As soon as there existed rich materials for poetry, in the exploits of Charlemagne and King Arthur, two kind of romances were composed, one of real events, as found in the protocols of the heralds, but romantically adorned; the other, of fictitious adventures, full of agreeable and lovely, but at the same time, of

* In the ancient libraries in England are found, as Warton (Hist. of English Poetry, l. i. sect. 2.) relates, written fragments of ancient poetry. They seem to have been sections of larger poems, and were sung in parts. Proofs of prologues or addresses to the audience, which were common also with the Greek rhapsodists, are found in Warton, vol. i. p. 18-19-Percy's Reliques of Ancient English Poetry, vol. i. p. 163—Goujet Biblioth. Francaise, t. ix. p. 3. &c.

The chronicle of Gottfried, Prior of Vigeois in Limonsin, describes the tenor and purpose of the first French romance as follows. After speaking of the taking of Jerusalem in 1099, he continues, “cujus exercitus bella vel magnifica gesta Baldricus Burguliensis Abbas, et alii quidam luculento et veraci stylo descripserunt Nos succincte ad alia tendimus. Gregorius, cognomento Bechada de Castro de Turribus, professione miles, subtilissimi ingenii vir, aliquantulum imbutus litteris, horum gesta præliorum, materna ut ita dixerim lingua rythmo vulgari, ut populus pleniter intelligeret, ingens volumen decenter composuit, et ut vera et faceta verba proferret, duodecim annorum spatio, super hoc opus operam dedit. Ne vero vilescerel propter rerbum vulgare, non sine precepto Episcopi Eustorgii et consiliis Guaberti Norman ni hoc opus aggressus est. Labbé, Biblio. Nov. t. ii. p. 296.

monstrous and absurd stories, of friendly and hostile spirits, of ghosts and spectres, of dragons and giants, of witches and sorcerers. They tell of tournaments and combats, of the defeat of rivals, of excursions over the whole universe to please a mistress and merit her love and esteem. The sources of these inventions were various. Many were drawn from earlier ages, from the times of barbarism and blind superstition. All ages of ignorance are marked by a belief in spirits and supernatural events, and a deep fear that leads to the most frightful superstitions. Many old songs or tales which had been composed under the influence of such opinions, in Heathen as well as in Christian ages, and were still by tradition preserved, were undoubtedly used by the minstrels in their poems, and the colouring deepened, and the incidents augmented by their own extravagant imaginations. Christian and Pagan superstitions were often united.*

An abundant addition of strange tales of sorcery, and all the appanage of giants, dwarfs and elfs, and visions and incorporeal forms came from the East, parts of which, however, had been already interwoven in the monkish legends, and Latin tales of earlier times. The romantic poets also gained in time, some indistinct information of the ancient heroes of Greece, and of the fabulous deeds of Alexander. In the East, there had long since been composed in the Arabic and new Persian languages, biographies of Alexander the Great, which the Oriental muse had filled with wonders and the most incredible incidents. One of these manuscripts, in 1070, during the reign of the Emperor Michael Ducas, fell into the hands of Simeon Seth, Protovestiarius in the palace of Antiochus, at Constantinople, who translated it into Greek. This Greek text was translated into Latin, perhaps, even before the time of the fictitious Turpin (1110); but evident traces of the frequent use of this biography among the Western Christians are met with a little later. In 1190, we find it cited by Gyraldus Cambrensis. Aretin Guilichinus brought it into elegiac verse, and since that time it has been translated into French, Italian and German.§

* The Pagan Saxons were already in the romance of Charlemagne called Saracens, and the Saracens in their turn Heathens; they adored Mahomet, Terragant, Apollo, and many other Gods, and what is more droll, had their Cardinals who repeated masses.

+ Herbelot, Biblioth. Orient voc Escander.

Leo Allatius de Simeonibus, p. 181. Fabricii Biblioth. Græc. 1. v. c. 42. t. x. p. 319.

Hearne Vindic. Antiquit. Acad. Oxon. t. 2, p. 802. note.

₫ Quadrio della Storia é della regione d'ogni Poesia, v. iv. p. 478. Phil. Labbei Nova Bibl. MSS. (Paris 1654-7,) Sp. i. p. 68, Historia Alexandri regis a magistro VOL. IV.-No. 8.

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In the middle of the thirteenth century, also appeared the mythological history of Greece, together with the fall of Troy and of Thebes. The first was made known by the works of Dictys Cretensis and Daris Phrygius. Guido of Colonna from Messina, a learned lawyer and celebrated poet, made (about 1266) many romantic additions to them; tournaments and single combats, and other chivalrous adventures. The applause with which Guido was rewarded for thus enlarging the Trojan history, induced him in 1287, to compose a romance of the Trojan war in Latin, in which he inserted not only the expedition against Thebes, but the voyage and adventures of the Argonauts, taken from Ovid, Statius and Valerius Flaccus*— and in order to embellish and heighten the exploits of his heroes by all the license of poetry, the author mingles with them every possible incident, (besides many impossible) old and new, Greek and Arabic, Asiatic and European-the heroes understand alchemy and astrology, the Trivium and Quadrivium, witchcraft and exorcism, and fought with dragons and griffins. This

Qualichino (alias Aretino) metrice edita incipit. Stellarum curis Ægyptus dedits quondam est Habetur quoque ejusdem Alexandri Magni historia, meris fabulis referta, scripta anno 1217, excripta vero anno 1465. In Velasquez' History of Spanish Poetry, is mentioned also, a work on the life and deeds of Alexander in Castilian verses, a production of the 13th century. This is no translation of that of Simeon Seth, but a fabulous life of Alexander, composed from many incorrect sources, as may be seen in Sanchez Collection de Poesias Castellanas. t. iii. In the library of the University of Goettingen, there exists of the editions of the Latin text and translations-1. a work with the title "Historia Alexandri magni regis Macedoniæ de pœrliis," at the end, "Historia Alexandri magni finit feliciter. Impressa Argentinæ anno domini MCCCCLXXXVI. Finita die sancti Calixti Papæ et Martiris. 2d. Historia Alexandri magni regis Macedoniæ de proeliis; at the end Historia Alexandri finit feliciter Impressa Argentinæ, anno domini MCCCCXCIIII. Fìnita altera die Urbani. They are in folio, (on the empty page to the left of the title of the first mentioned work, some one of its first proprietors has written, Mattaire, t. i. p. 479. mentionem facit hujus editionis sibi non visæ. Ex catalogis quibusdam recenset illam, M. Clement Biblioth. curieuse. Mattaire, p. 514, edit Argen. 1489, ex catal. Biblioth. Kilmanseg, et p. 528, edit. 1490, ex catalogis, et p. 584, edit. Argent 1494. Casimer Ondinus, ap. Jo. Christ. Wolf in monument. typogr. t. ii, p. 902, edit. Messanæ 1486, in fol. quam exstare vix credo.) An Italian translation bears the title, Tavola nela historia de Alexandro magno sive del suo nascimento et delle sue prosperose battaglie et de la morte sua ìnfortunata ìdibus Octobris, MCCCCLXXVII.

* Guido de Colonna, (Columna or Columpna,) from Messina in Sicily, flourished about 1260, Vossius de hist. lat. 1. ii. c. 60, (in arte historica edit. Amstelod. fol. p. 154.) Warton hist. English Poetry, t. i. p. 126. This prose romance de Bello Trojano in 15 books, was as a general favourite, published soon after the invention of printing. In the Goettingen library are two editions, sine anno aut loco. The one with the title, Hystoria Trojana Guidonis, and a supplement to it with the title, Historia Alexandri magni regis Macedoniæ de Proeliis, at the end, Impressa Argentinæ anno domini MCCCCLXXXIX. Finiti in die Sctæ, Gerdrudis Virginis. The other, Historia Trojana Guidonis, in the middle, Historia destructionis Troia composita per judicem Guidonem de Columna Messanen-finit feliciter in civitate Argentina impressa novissime anno domini MCCCCLXXXXшII. circa festam saneti Jacobi.

strange and romantic work was translated from the Latin into the modern languages-into Italian, French, German, and the Scandinavian dialects, and came into general circulation. The great men of Europe became so enraptured with the Greek and and Trojan heroes, that all wished to trace their descent from such noble progenitors. The monks, in order to show their learning, contended against each other in efforts to compose for the noble families around them, a lineage derived from the ancient Greek and Roman chiefs, showing their close affinity. Fortunately, Asia had been the cradle of the human race, so that it became more easy for Europeans to claim their descent and trace a direct pedigree from that country. These materials were all intermingled with the gallantry and heroism, and respect for the honour of the female sex, which distinguished the age of chivalry, and especially with devotion to the church, which was assiduously impressed on all. In this way, were brought into existence many agreeable works, though checquered with the most absurd and incongruous materials. Yet, perhaps, even on this account, they were adapted to an age when ignorance was predominant, when all original thought was alloyed with foreign opinions, and overwhelmed by authority. To an age of civil and political ignorance, mental dullness must also belong. They arise, endure and vanish together.

The paroxysm of knight-errantry at length subsided. Civil order was gradually re-established, and with it re-appeared a better knowledge, purer ideas and mental discipline. The chimeras of chivalry began to be estimated at their real value, and to be considered as absurd and ridiculous. The admiration of the romances of chivalry ceased, because they no longer suited the age; and they would have lost favour like everything founded on unnatural and antiquated customs, although they had not been attacked by the caustic satire of Cervantes.

The sweet strains of gallantry and the romantic ballads might have lasted a little longer, if they had not at their rise, borne within themselves the seeds of decay. Songs of these descriptions, however popular when new, finally become tiresome, if continued with enthusiasm for some centuries, unless they breathe the spirit of poetry itself. But these all wanted the spirit of true poetry as well as an opulence of thought. The poets did not penetrate deeply into their subjects; their representations of love and of living nature, were lifeless, and glided only upon the surface. There were none of those touching and magical allusions to history and mythology, to the deep feeling

"Warton Hist. of English Poetry, t. i. p. 126-127.

and hidden sympathies of man, which had distinguished the verse of the classic world. Besides, the poetry of those days was not always the fruit of internal sentiment, it became soon a matter of pomp and courtly pageantry, a thing of habit, fashion or duty, and, therefore, often cold and harsh. The love of song had induced many a noble head to search in classic authors for assistance, or to receive it without their knowledge; but the sense of those old authors, such was the total want of learned resources, was a riddle, and their beauty and spirit a secret in that age. The better minds, however, began to feel by comparison, the rudeness and poverty of their own poetry; the uniformity of its adventures, the grotesqueness of its representations in its graver strains, as well as the monotony of its ideas in its lighter measures, and became disgusted with its eternal sameness. Yet, notwithstanding the enterprizes and adventures of the knights became daily more limited, as the power of the cities and their armed militia arose in the neighbourhood of the castles, and rendered the institutions of chivalry of no service and effect, still some of the noble bards continued to rhyme, and (for want of new adventures to decorate new strains,) to imitate their early poets, or repeat their old histories with diminished interest and feebler powers.

The poetry of chivalry remained in this state, until the nobles reduced and impoverished retired into their castles. Some still fond of poetry repaired to courts, to be supported in the train of princes, and revive their dying popularity. But their strains were become insipid. The poetry which in an ignorant and excited or excitable age, had been hailed with rapture, was now treated with contempt, and however slowly a better taste arose, it yet in time finally silenced the poets of this school.

The course prescribed by nature to the human mind, would without other circumstances, have led the poetry of the chival ric ages to its fated catastrophe. In every nation, the powers of imagination come first into action, and flow without rule and by a mere internal impulse, in rough and simple poetry This may be styled the awakening of a nation when culture first begins, and the imagination exercises a superintendance until the higher faculties assume the right of government. This progressive developement in nations as in individuals from the dawn of fancy, to the period when reason begins to create, to form, to arrange, compare, and associate ideas is a work of

* There exist many imitations of the ancient classics, as the Ovid of Halbrecht of Halberstadt; Veldeck's Virgil; Adene, a French romantic poet, translated Æsop from the Greek into Latin; Marie de France translated in the 13th century, Æsop's Fables and Phædrus, from English into French-and many others might be noted.