was built by the Greeks, and attained to such a rank, not only in wealth, but in arts and sciences, that it was termed the Athens of Gaul, and the towns around it were all founded by Grecians, and acknowledged Marseilles as their metropolis or parent city. Therefore, during the government of Rome, Greek and Roman literature were mingled in the Southern provinces of Gaul, and the Greek language had prepared and formed the organs of the ancient tribes for the more easy reception of the Latin. Its adoption, therefore, must have been far more prompt and general in the Southern, than in the Northern provinces. We may, therefore, readily suppose that before the great emigration of nations, the former were in possession of a purer dialect than the latter, and this superiority probably continued until the entire formation of the modern language. From the number of Germans in the North of France, it was frequently called the land of Franconians, the South that of the Romans, the Loire forming the boundary. This mixture of Latin and German words formed in the course of time two dialects, one rude and awkward in the North, the other polished and harmonious in the South of France. About the time that this latter was highly cultivated, Raymond of St. Giles, Count of Provence, united the whole of Gothia and a great part of Aquitania under his government, and the Southern provinces of France, became all known under the general name of Provence. After that, France and Provence were distinguished as separate countries, and the language of the provinces on the North of the Loire, gradually received the name of French, while that of the South, and of Catalonia, retained the name of Provençal. These languages advanced towards a state of refinement with very unequal steps. The one from previous advantages, perhaps from climate, from being used by a more cultivated and better instructed people, became regular, noble, sonorous and rich, while the other was rude and barbarous. The elegance and harmony of the Provençal language, recommended it to kings and their courts, and the poets and writers, not only of France and Spain, but even of Italy, used it as a favourite tongue. The emperors Frederic I. and II. and Richard of the Lion Heart of England, used it in their lays. For three centuries it acquired and maintained a high and universal reputation, and it aided to form or to enrich all the modern languages in the South-west of Europe. As it extended, however, it insensibly became mingled with foreign words, and modulated by different organs, it broke into many dialects, and although, now much altered and no longer a national tongue, it is still the rude country language of Pro vence, Languedoc, Gascoigne, Catalonia, Valencia, Majorca, Minorca, Ivica, and Sardinia. The French very early attempted to compose in their Northern patois or vulgar dialect, but this bold effort, though meritorious, did not succeed; the material was rough and inflexible, the subjects generally without any poetical dignity, the poets ignorant, and the verses feeble and insipid-yet even these efforts served to improve their language. In Provence, extraneous circumstances added to its superiority. Commerce began to revive, and its benefits were soon perceived, in the increasing wealth of the inhabitants, the better cultivation of the soil, and the spirit, activity and industry which was communicated to the whole population. The Provençaux, with some culture, and souls filled with the love of beauty, wandered forth with the cross on their shields or on their frocks as warriors or as pilgrims, to visit in the East, all that remained of ancient arts, magnificence and taste, the vestiges of former glory that still lingered upon earth; and on their return home displayed at the courts of their princes, all the knowledge they had acquired abroad, as well as the refined manners and courtesy of the accomplished knight. It was then that the star of chivalry was most refulgent. In the court of Provence were again combined advantages that had long been separated. A cultivated and copious language, a nobility gallant and mild; fancy was enlivened and embellished by heroic adventures, and crusades and pilgrimages opened an unbounded field to enterprize and fiction. The nobles be came poets, because poetry was the boast and pride of every court, and whether at tournaments or at feasts, was among the prominent and applauded accompaniments of every spectacle. But it was particularly in the reign of Raymond Berenger III. (1168-1181) and Raymond Berenger IV. (1209—1245) a prince of great power, a lover of poetry himself, and the father of four queens, who followed his example and collected in their courts the poets of their times, and even contended with them in song, that the most brilliant era of the Troubadours may be placed. The example of these princes operated powerfully, and after their reign, it seemed like a duty imposed on the princes of Provence and Catalonia, to collect around them a circle of poets from the nobility, and to bestow on them princely rewards. It was after that time also required of a knight, that he should possess the talent of making verse. The favourite subjects of these poets were women and love. They sung of them in various ways and in different kinds of poetry, in merry and humourous airs, (soulas) or in melancholy and gloomy songs, (lays) with gallant timidity or elevated reverence, in simple strains, or in firm and energetic expressions, and sometimes, like wild children of nature, in free and rather licentious language. Still the true and chaste poet looked up to the lady of his love with feelings almost of adoration, viewing her as the perfection of nature, and showing himself transported with happiness at the smallest tokens of her favour. At one time, perhaps, threatening to carry off by force, the mistress of his heart-at another, not daring to utter a word that could betray his desires. But these songs occupied a small range of thought or even sentiment and expression. They became tiresome from their uniformity. Sometimes, however, these amorous poets, amidst their feeble sighs, insert some heroic representation of their dangerous enterprizes, which often are beautiful resting places to one fatigued with their insipid gallantry. Pastoral poetry (pastourelles) was also a production of the Provençal poets-idyls artless and simple in their construction. Very few specimens, however, of this kind of poetry remain, because the gallantry of the courts drew the poets from rural life and its innocent occupations. More frequently, the Troubadours were occupied in giving poetical instructions in morals and behaviour to those elevated conditions of life-in forming young noblemen for the future duties of chivalry, or supplying noble ladies with maxims for their conduct in life. Sometimes they composed rules for poets, minstrels, jongleurs, and other attendants of the court, didactic poems, filled with as much moral instruction as the spirit of the age could afford, but overloaded at the same time, with trifling and tiresome allegories. They, however, give us much insight into the manners of their times.* The Provençals were besides very fond of discourses on historical or satirical subjects, of panegyrics and invectives, which they called Syrventes. They praised in them, with candour and sincerity, generosity, valour, and nobleness of mind, even in their enemies-speak of themselves and their contemporaries-criticise with boldness the highest in rank and authority, and spare not even the clergy. Unfortunately, it was not only vices and abuses that were subject to their censure-merit itself sometimes felt the lash of envy, and their poems often degenerated into the most bitter and personal invectives. Had their satires been finished with as much spririt, delicacy and humanity, *It is supposed that Boethius, (de consol. Philosophiæ) a favourite classic in the middle ages, aroused and nourished the love of Allegory. We may also add the Psychomachia of Prudentius. as they were sketched with frankness and courage, they would have been admired as the reformers and benefactors of their age, instead of being contemned and neglected for their coarseness and dullness. These smaller poems on war, love, manners and morals, on themselves and their contemporaries, the poets sung separately at festivals, to augment the gaiety of the occasion-but sometimes two poets amused the circle by discussing in mirthful mood various questions of gallantry adapted to the display of talents, and particularly of prompt and pointed wit. These were the tenson or tenzen of the Troubadours. These dialogues were generally at courts the favourite exercise of the art, because in them wit, humour and irony had wide scope, and amid many idle "quips and quiddities," wisdom and judgment sometimes flashed forth. In order to give such jeux partis an appearance of respect, the company was transformed into a court of justice, with its president, and ladies were called upon to decide. This was the origin of the famous cours d'amour, where two knights, or a knight with a noble lady, would engage in poetical contests, and debate and expatiate on love and all its wild and perilous adventures.* The names of the poetical institutions of the Provençals, where amusing and witty questions were debated, were, Cours d'amour, Corte d'amore, Parlamente d'amore, and the decisions were called Arrest d'amour. The traces of the cours d'amours begin with William Duke of Guienne and Count of Poictiers, (10711226,) the oldest of the Provençal poets of whose compositions there are still to be found any remains-(among the MSS. of the royal library in Paris.) Duke William engaged in a crusade to Palestine, and on his return (1102) described in a kind of epic song, the adventures and adversities of his expedition, which he read in the assemblies of the great. Ondericus Vitalis in Hist. Ecclesiat. I. x. p. 793, (apud du Chesne in Script. rerum Normannorum) "mïserias captivitatis suæ, ut erat jocundus et lepidus, postmodum prosperitate factus, coram regibus et magnatibus atque christianis coetibus multoties retulit, rhythmitis versibus cum facetis modulationibus.” May not the reges, magnates et christiani coetus, represent if not a completely arranged cour d'amour, at least the commencement of such an institution? Savarus, VisCount of Mauleon, Lord of Poitou, (under Louis VIII,) was a great poet, of whom Papirius Mosson in Annal. Franciæ (Lutet. 1588,) p. 293, writes: "Fuit Savaricus poeticis studiis deditus, admirandum in modum, confluebantque ad eum ex omni Galliâ Poetæ, quod ipse eos magnis et rebus et præmiis afficere esset solitus." In this sentence there is probably an allusion to a cours d'amours, although it is not mentioned by name. About the same time also lived Thibaut, King of Navarre and Count of Champagne, who frequently sung of his love for Queen Blanca,(Blanche.) the mother of St. Louis-and these "versus a se factos in Aula publica dijudicandos proponebat," as Mariana in Hist. Hisp. 1. xiii. c. 9 writes. Mariana probably took this information from Nangi's Life of St. Louis, which was more complete than the one now in print. See also Papirius Mosson, in Annal. Franciæ, p. 307-"Musicæ admodum deditus et poeticis studiis fuit (Theobaldus,) carminibus adeo delectabatur, ut quæ scripsisset in Aula Sua Præviri et Tricassileus? proposita omnium oculis esse velet; id enim in vita Ludovici Nangius refert." Should not the aula have been the cours d'amours? Pierre d'Auvergne, who wrote about the year 1200, says they held at his time "assemblées aux flambeaux on l'on recitoit (en Provençal) les nouvelles fabliaux"-Papon Voyage de Provence, t. ii. p. 174, 227. Yet all these passages do not prove this fact certainly, and may refer to the open courts which the After that period, when the princes in Provence announced a tournament, they invited the noble poets and the poets of the nobility to bring with them their best songs, that after the conclusion of the fait d'armes, a poetical tournament, before a court of love, might be commenced, or the assembly be entertained by single and successive songs. This poetical institution was at last so popular, that no gala day or any other princely ceremonies or entertainments, could be complete without the court of love. On this account, kings and princes conferred all Kings and Princes held three or four times in each year. In a poem of Guiraud of Narbonne, dated 1287, this name plainly occurs Res nom val mos trobars En corts don mes amars. "Neither my verses nor my knowledge serve me, to procure me honour in my cour d'amours"-(de Càseneuve l'origine des jeux fleuraus, p. 37,)—not only men but the ladies of the castle also, had their cours d'amours. So Pierre Roger, a celebrated Provençal poet, sung for the honour of the Vicomtesse of Narbonne Ermengarde-"amo Ermengarda, valorosa et nobil Segnora, che tenia Cort en Narbona" -Caseneuve, loc. rit. p. 44. Nostradamus histoire et Chronique de Provence, lib. ii. p. 133, in the life of the Provençal poet Fauffred Radel, a contemporary of Richard of England, says, “cequi est à remarquer, c'est que de ce temps il y avoit cours d amours à Signe et a Pierre feu, ou les questions plus hautes et difficiles qui par fois survenoient entre les jeunes gentilshommes et Demoiselles estoient debatues et decidées sans la regle de l'honneur par les Dames plus illustres et qualifiées dupays: sur lesquelles presidoient alors comme souvraines, Stephanete Dame de Baus fille du Comte de Provence, Adelazie Vicomtesse d'Avignon, Alaette Dame d'Ongle, Hermissiende Dame de Pasquiéres, Mabille Dame d'Yeres, le Comptesse de Die, Rostanque Dame de Pierrefeu, Bertrande Dame de Signe et Fausserande de Claustral. Jean Nostradamus (according to Caseneuve de l'origine ces jeux fleuraux, p: 45,) au livre des Poetes Provençaux ecrit que Pharette ou Stephanette de Gaultenus, Dame de Laurette de Sare, tant celebrée par Petrarque, tenoit cour d'amour dans son chateau de Ramains prés de la ville de St. Remy en Provence, ou presidoit d'ordinaire avec elle le Marquise de Salaces, et Clarette de Baulx de l'ancienne maison des Princes d'Orange, et que le jugement qu'elles y donnoient estoient appellez Arrests d'amour. The Popes while they lived at Avignon, supported the cours d'amour, and (as Innocent VI. did) brought them into use at all feasts-(Discours sur les arcs triumphaux dressés en la ville d Aix, p. 26) Petrarca's Laura presided in a corte d'amore, with twelve ladies of Provence. (Sonnet 188.) Caseneuve sur l'origine des jeux fleuraux, p. 45-le plus ordinaire jugement de ces cours d'amours, se faisoient sur les ouvrages de poetes, qui debattoient quelque belle question d'armes ou d'amour en sorte de dialogue qu'ils appelloient Partincen ou Tensen; et sur la fin on remettoit la decision et le jugement a deux Dames, comme font Prevost et Savarie et un Partincen que j'ay veu deux sur la fin du quel ils tombent d'accord defaire ouider leur differend à ces trois Dames Guillemette de Benause, Marie de Ventadeur, et Madame de Monfernan-quelque fois ils prenoient pour Juges une dame et un Seigneur comme j'ay veu en un Partincen de Bertrand et de Sordeil, qui remettent la decision de leur dispute à la Comtesse de Rhodes et a un Seigneur nommé Jean de Valarie on bien quelque fois ils prenoient pour juge un grand Seigneur qui tout seul decidoit leur dispute, et comme j'ay remarqué dans un autre Partincen de Londeil et de Montagnal qui prenent le Comte de Provence pour leur juge We will now say a few words as to the rewards which the distinguished poets received from Monarchs. They consist chiefly in armour and weapons, in dresses, horses, &c. and sometimes after their death, in a monument. Nostradamus hist. et |