republican institutions. We cannot reasonably hope that our government will be long preserved, after the people shall have become too ignorant and too corrupt to act for the public good. A government ought therefore to guard the public morals, and to promote the general diffusion of useful knowledge, as the only sure means of its preservation. In accordance with this sentiment, most of the states of this union have adopted, or are maturing, systems of learning, by which the benefits of a practical education may be shared by all classes of the community. When these benefits shall be universally enjoyed, we may indulge the hope that our civil and religious liberties will be enduring.

CHAPTER VIII.

Legislative Power.-Organization and Division of the Legis

lature.

§ 62. THERE is in every state, a general legislative, or law-making power. The legislature is composed of two branches, a senate and house of representatives. The latter, or lower branch, is differently styled in different states, being called also the house of delegates, the assembly, the house of commons, and sometimes simply, the house. The legislature, or both branches united, are sometimes termed, general assembly, and general court.

63. The house of representatives is the more numerous body, consisting, generally, of three or four times as many members as the senate. They represent more immediately the people of the several towns and counties in which they reside. In some of the states, one or more are elected in each town by the people to represent them in the legislature; in other states, a certain number of representatives are apportioned to each county, according to its proportion of the whole number of the inhabitants of the state.

§ 62. How is the legislature of a state divided? § 63. How is the house of representatives composed? § 64. How long do representa

§ 64. Representatives are usually chosen for the term of one year; in a few of the states, they hold their offices for two years. They may be re-elected at the pleasure of the electors. Elections of representatives are made thus fre. quent, in order to ensure a faithful discharge of their duties. Were they elected for a very long term of years, or for life, they would be too independent of the people. Being permanently seated in power, they would feel less responsibility to their constituents, than when they may be removed from office at the expiration of every year. Hence, a short term is deemed necessary to guard the public interests.

§ 65. The qualifications of representatives, as is also their term of office, are designated by the constitution. To be eligible to this office, a man should be of such age as to have had opportunity to acquire that knowledge of public affairs which young men, at the moment of their majority, seldom possess. He ought also to have been. for a considerable time, a citizen of the United States, and a resident of the state long enough to have become acquainted with its government and general policy. Accordingly, the age of twentyfour or twenty-five years, citizenship, and residence in the state for a term of years, have been made indispensable qualifications in all the states. In some of them, they must also possess a freehold, or other taxable property.

§ 66. Senators represent larger districts, comprising, generally, one or more counties. The character of a senate is somewhat different from that of the house. It is a more select body, its members being generally chosen for their superior wisdom, and longer experience in public affairs. It is designed also to be a more stable and independent body. The term of office of its members is made longer than that of representatives, that in their conduct they may be less influenced by the fear of removal from office. In some of the states, this body is so organized, that a part only of its members go out of office every year. By this arrangement, there will always remain in the senate a large number who are experienced in legislation, and better qualified than new

tives in state legislatures generally hold their offices? Why is their term of office thus short? § 65. What are the general qualifications of a representative? § 66. In what respects is the character of a

members to complete the unfinished business of preceding

sessions.

§ 67. The division of a legislature into two co-ordinate branches, is intended to prevent the enactment of improper laws. An injudicious measure may be introduced into a legislative body, and passed without due deliberation. Or, a salutary measure in its general provisions, having been hastily adopted, may be imperfect in some of its details. It is wisely provided, therefore, in all our constitutions, that every measure proposed and passed by either house, shall be subjected to the revision of the other; by which it may be amended or wholly rejected.

§ 68. A primary object of the institution of a senate is to hold in check the popular branch of the legislature. The election of representatives occurring so frequently, this body is rendered unstable and fluctuating by those sudden convul. sions in public sentiment which are common in democratic governments; and, without some restraint upon its action, the administration would become equally fluctuating; the laws enacted one year would be liable to alteration and repeal by every successive legislature; and consequently there would be little security to the rights of person and property.

§ 69. Among the important trusts committed to the senate, is the power of appointment, which it exercises, in conjunction with the governor, in appointing such officers of the government as are not elected by the people. Other weighty responsibilities often devolve upon this body. Its members ought, therefore, to be men possessing, in an eminent degree, the qualifications of wisdom, experience, and incorruptible integrity.

§ 70. The legislature of every state meets at least once in a year, on the day designated by the constitution, to make such laws as the general welfare may require, and to perform such other duties as are assigned to it by the consti tution and the laws. The duration of its sessions are not

senate different from the lower branch? § 67. Why is a legislature divided into two branches? § 68. What are the advantages of a senate? 69. What power does it exercise with the governor ? 70. How often does a legislature meet; and for what purpose?

limited to any specific period, being continued until the most important subjects demanding its consideration shall have been disposed of.

§ 71. The first business of a legislature, on its meeting, is the organization of the respective houses, by the appointment of the necessary officers. Each house elects from its number a speaker, to preside over its deliberations during the session. The duties of a speaker are, to give direction to the business of the house, to enforce the rules of the house, to preserve order in debate, and to put the questions in taking the sense of the house on a proposed bill or resolution. Questions of order often arise in the course of debate which it is not easy for the speaker to decide. This renders his duties very arduous, and sometimes extremely perplexing. The choice of a speaker ought therefore to fall upon an individual who is prompt in his decisions, and familiar with the established usages of legislative bodies. In those states in which there is a lieutenant-governor, this officer usually presides in the senate.

§ 72. Besides the speaker, each house chooses from the citizens at large, a clerk, or secretary, to keep a record of its proceedings; a door-keeper; and a sergeant-at-arms, who is authorized to compel the attendance of members whenever it shall become necessary, and whose other duties are similar to those of a constable, or other peace officer in a court of justice. A clergyman also is usually chosen to serve as chaplain, whose duty it is to offer up prayer every morning at the opening of the session, and to perform such other religious services as shall be called for during the session.

§ 71. How is a legislative body organized? What are the duties of a speaker? § 72. What other officers are chosen; and what are their respective duties?

CHAPTER IX.

Manner of enacting Laws.

§ 73. In order to transact the public business with de. spatch, each house, when duly organized by the election of its officers, appoints committees on all the ordinary subjects of legislation. To one committee is committed the subject of public expenditures; to another, all applications for canals and railroads; to another, petitions for banks and other in, corporations; and so of all the general interests of the state. These interests are so numerous, that all, or nearly all the members of the house, are usually appointed to serve on one or more of the several committees. These are called standing committees. When any special matter arises which needs to be investigated, a committee is appointed for the purpose, called a select committee. Committees are some, times appointed by the presiding officer.

§74. The necessity of this division of a legislative body into committees is obvious. So great are the number and diversity of subjects to be acted upon, that, if each of them were to receive the attention of the whole house, during the whole course of its investigation, a very small part only of these subjects could be disposed of. By dividing the business among the several committees, much time is saved, and the public business is expedited; as each committee, consisting usually of three, five, or seven members, is as capable of making inquiries into the merits of an application, and of obtaining the information necessary to aid the house in its final action on the subject, as the whole house.

§75. When a committee has duly examined any matter, such committee reports to the house the result of such examination; if the report be in favor of the proposed measure, it is usually accompanied by a bill. A bill is the original draft of a law. Bills may also be introduced by individual

§ 73. After the appointment of officers, what is done preparatory to the transaction of business? What are standing committees? Select committees? § 74. Why is this division of a legislative body necesMary? § 75. How are bills introduced? What is a bill? § 76, 77.