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Cheyney's

Short History of England

By EDWARD P. CHEYNEY

Professor of European History in the University of Pennsylvania
Price $1.40

A widely-commended text admirably adapted for use in Colleges and High Schools that offer a fairly complete course in English History.

Among the causes contributing to the success of Cheyney's History are, briefly: its thorough scholarship and admirable historical perspective; its absolutely clear and vivid style; its adequate attention to the social and biographical sides of the subject; and its fine equipment in maps (42 in all), illustrations (over 140), bibliographical lists, genealogical tables, and other aids.

Cheyney's History has enhanced value through the publication of the accompanying Readings in English History, and Trenholme's Outline of English History, based on the Cheyney text.

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By RoscoE LEWIS ASHLEY, author of "The American Federal State," "American Government," etc. 12mo. Cloth. Illustrated. xxxv+557+xlvii pages. $1.10 net.

A Short History of the United States

By EDNA HENRY LEE TURPIN. With an Introduction by S. C. MITCHELL, Ph.D., President of the University of South Carolina. 12mo. Cloth. xviii+478 pages. 90 cents net.

The Study of History in Secondary Schools Report of the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five: ANDREW C. MCLAUGHLIN, Chairman, CHARLES H. HASKINS, JAMES H. ROBINSON, JAMES SULLIVAN and the late CHARLES W. MANN. 12mo Cloth. vi-+72 pages.

25 cents net.

Volume II. Number 10.

$1.00 a year 15 cents a copy

You have doubtless met, some time or other, men who have declared that the only text-book problem was the problem of getting a good one. If you could only get a good one, they said, all you would have to do would be to see that the pupils learned it. I met one of these men last Summera teacher from a neighboring State who put the argument very neatly. The author of the text-book," he said, "knows more about his subject than I do, and he has presented it in his book in a way which will enable it to produce its best effect, and it would be folly for me to intervene between the book and the pupil and mar that effect." I need hardly say that I conceive the teacher's part in the use of the text-book to be somewhat more exalted.

Whether the text-book is satisfactory or not, there are several outstanding difficulties in its use which I wish to remind you of, and also some suggestions as to the ways in which they have been met.

The most elementary problem, which is at the same time a fundamental one, is that of language. A history teacher, experience proves, dare not assume that his pupils know the English language well enough to get the ideas the author wishes to convey, and it is therefore his first duty to see that they understand the language of the text-book. This, some one may object, is not history, but English. True; but every teacher has to give instruction in English, as far as his subject requires it, and the more coöperation there is in the teaching of the language the better. If the pupils do not get the author's meaning, they can not learn the history which his words present.

It is not possible to catalogue all the linguistic pitfalls which beset the path of the average high-school pupil, but there are several sorts against which every skilled teacher should be forewarned. There is, first, the unusual word which the writer has had to use, or at any rate has used in order to convey his meaning; secondly, the common word which he employs in a special sense; thirdly, the figure of speech; fourthly, the allusion, literary or historical; fifthly, the sentence whose exact meaning turns upon certain qualifying words. The pupil is naturally prone to take the obvious meaning, to guess at a hard word or allow his eye to read it as a "soft" word, to slide over the qualifying words in the closely-woven sentence; in short, to miss the meaning without knowing that he has missed it. Every one here present can probably recall cases like that of the pupil who read in the text that after the death of Gustavus Adolphus the war was carried on by generals trained in his school, and then stated in class that Gustavus Adolphus had founded a school for generals!

These linguistic difficulties must, as far as possible, be foreseen by the teacher, who should ask the pupils to look up such and such words in the dictionary, to give special attention to the context here or there, to read over this or that sentence very carefully and decide what are the words which determine the exact meaning of the sentence. If the pupils can solve the difficulty for themselves when their attention has been drawn to it, they will reap the benefits of their

labors; if it turns out that they cannot solve it, they will at least be in a position to value the teacher's solution. Close attention to the linguistic difficulties is especially needful in the earlier years of the course. As time passes, and the pupils get a better grasp on the historical vocabulary, the number of linguistic questions will decline, although the teacher ought never to relax his vigilant scrutiny of the language of the text.

A second problem, which is partly linguistic, but more largely historical, is that concerned with the meanings of such comprehensive words as society, sovereignty, civilization, spiritual, secular, national. What a host of ideas march through the mind of the educated man when he thinks of the word civilization-the goal of humanity throughout the ages! All these words can be held and used vaguely, and usually are so employed, but as the high-school pupil progresses in his history course he should steadily gain an increasingly rich content for them. The teacher should strive to increase the store of ideas which these words represent, and in every possible way should lead his pupils consciously to take stock of them. If the teacher does not make this one of his aims, his pupils will suffer grievous loss.*

Among the problems which may be called purely historical, I should say that the first in order of importance is to have the pupils secure a reasonably accurate grasp of the meaning of the generalizations in the text-book. They find it relatively easy and even attractive to learn and remember isolated simple facts, such as the names of rulers, the dates of administrations, the outlines of a battle, the successive steps in any simple movements set forth in the text. It is very different with the generalizations in which the author endeavors to sum up the results, or present the real inward meaning of a long process of historical evolution. These generalizations, in comparison with the simple facts, just referred to, may be called complex facts, but they are even more than that; they are virtually symbols or formulæ, representing the countless simple facts which lie behind them. When an author gives, for example, the outlines of the growth of the power of the French monarchy and then concludes by saying: "Thus the monarchy established the unity of the State," how easy it is for the pupil to remember the words of the generalization, while remaining almost entirely ignorant of its significance! For, mark you, such a generalization is never based on the simple facts given in the text, but upon them and legions of others omitted, or even unknown at first hand, by the author. The filling of important generalizations with adequate content is one of the most serious duties of the teacher.

In endeavoring to fill the generalizations with the adequate content the teacher must, first of all, have the pupils work from the simple facts given in the text to the generalization,

*It is a pleasure to acknowledge the obligation I am under, as a student of the pedagogy of history, to Miss Charlotte Worley of Nebraska, who was a graduate student at the University of Wisconsin about two years ago. My treatment of the linguistic problem is dominated by her ideas, and throughout this paper her pedagogical influence more than once exerts its sway. I trust that her book on the teaching of history may soon see the light. It will be a work of great value.

and vice versa. In addition to this he will need, in many cases, to draw upon his own historical resources, and present other illustrative facts, derived from preceding lessons and especially from his own independent reading, and thus make the generalizations not merely verbal but vital. The wise teacher will not handle all generalizations in this way, but only such as he deems important, or as we say nowadays, essential. He knows that elimination should go hand and hand with emphasis, and that many parts of the text need only to be read, not remembered, since they serve merely to introduce important topics.

What are the essentials in a text-book? What is the core of essential fact" spoken of in the Wisconsin Manual? The teacher of mathematics or science does not need to ask himself such a question; he does not say to himself, "What shall I omit in the theory of quadratics or of atoms?" It is quite different with the teacher of history. It is customary to say to him, "Emphasize those facts, simple and complex, which have been most important in producing our present civilization." Well and good; but, what are these facts? How can you tell them when you encounter them?

Last summer I asked three experienced teachers to point out independently the essentials in two important pages of a well-known text-book. They placed the results of their study on the blackboard, and we found that there were marked differences of opinion. Now, if historical values were as easy to determine as the values of our coins, the matter of selection would be relatively simple; but historical values are not absolute, but relative relative to time, place, and the individual-and a teacher's temperament and training will in every case enter into his decision. This means, in practice, that the core of essential fact" will in some measure vary with the teacher. Fortunately for us and our children, we are not driven to seek an impossible and deadening uniformity, and are in a position to utilize to the fullest extent the individuality of our teachers.

In deciding what he will emphasize-and that means what he will ask his pupils to consider especially in their preparation-the wise teacher gives weight to those "essentials" he is best equipped to handle. I do not mean for a moment that the teacher will pass over movements of obvious importance just because they do not interest him, but that he should give his pupils the advantage of the special knowledge of any important phase of civilization which he may possess. It is no small part of the teacher's duty-indeed, I venture to believe that it is probably his noblest function-to clothe with life the "dry bones" of the text-book. He should, therefore, He should, therefore, without being lop-sided. give generous treatment to those topics in the text which his aptitudes and training enable him to fill with the richest content. If he is strong in social or artistic history, let him use his strength whenever possible! If he is filled with enthusiasm for constitutional or economic history, let him give vent to it! For, at best, none of us can hope to give our students more than a fragmentary picture of a portion of the past, and we commit a serious blunder if we do not make that picture as vital as possible. Knowledge and enthusiasm are mighty in creating interest, and interest is one of the widest of the doors that lead into the kingdom of history. The "essentials," then, will and should vary from teacher to teacher.

There are times, however, when the teacher does well to emphasize a so-called non-essential. This occurs when the non-essential offers the teacher a special opportunity to train and test the judgment of his pupils. Let me make my point clear by means of Cheyney's treatment of the will of Henry VII, in his "Short History of England.”

On pages 309-10 Cheyney makes the following statement: "There had been so much confusion about the legitimacy of Henry's children, and uncertainty as to their right to the inheritance, that parliament had passed a special act giving him

the right to provide in his will for the succession to the crown. In accordance with this act of parliament he left instructions that his son Edward should succeed him and pass the crown down to his children, if he should have any. If he had none, it was to go to his elder sister Mary and to her children. If she also should die without children, it should go to Elizabeth. As a matter of fact, each of Henry's children reigned in successsion and all died without heirs." On pages 383, in treating of the accession of James I, Cheyney says: "Elizabeth had refused to acknowledge any one as her successor. even after it became evident that she would have no children of her own. If the will of Henry VIII, under which she, as well as Edward and Mary, had inherited the throne, was to be followed, a certain English nobleman, son of the sister of Lady Jane Grey and great-grandson of Mary, the younger sister of Henry VIII, would become king. But James Stuart, son of Mary Queen of Scots and great-grandson of Margaret, the elder sister of Henry VIII, was a far more suitable candidate." And in a footnote to page 383 Cheyney gives a genealogical table which makes clear the relationships of all the persons mentioned to each other.

Now, from the standpoint of essentials it is, I think, unwise to bother children with the terms of the will of Henry VIII, since the succession of Edward VI, Mary, Elizabeth, and James followed the regular rules of inheritance, the will being ignored in the case of James. But Cheyney's peculiar treatment of the will presents a rare chance to exercise the judgment of the pupils, and such opportunities should be grasped. Let the teacher refer the pupils to the two passages and the footnote, and ask them to state the terms of the will. They will need to read the text very carefully, to study over the phraseology, to compare the statements, and to come to a conclusion they can justify from the text. When the problem comes up in class and I am a false prophet if such a problem is not discussed with almost tumultuous interest -and the pupils have gone over the evidence again and given their decisions, let the teacher read the will of Henry VIII from some of the constitutional histories and thus vindicate the judgment of the winning side! Such problems cannot be given to babes, but when the pupils are up to them they can occasionally be used with telling effect, whether they concern essentials or non-essentials."

66

It has not escaped your notice, I am sure, that the problems involved in the use of the text-book, which I have now laid before you, are at bottom, of the same character; they are all matters of selection, elimination, and emphasis. The teacher must discover what words, phrases, and sentences need special consideration in order to bring out the author's meaning; he must fix upon the generalizations which are to receive extra attention and be filled with the richest content, or, looking at the question from another point of view, he must determine what parts of the text he will have the pupils emphasize, and what they are to pass over with a mere careful reading.

The decision of these questions determines the recitation; the day's lesson turns upon the decision; everything depends upon it-both the teacher's preparation of the lesson and the pupils' preparation of the lesson. What would be the use of the teacher planning the lesson so as to give the maximum of valuable information and training to his pupils, if their preparation of the lesson were made in ignorance of his plan? Can satisfactory results be achieved with the teacher shaping the work one way and each pupil shaping it his way, or leaving it unshaped, incoherent! Similarly why suffer the damage which results from only a partial understanding of the teacher's plan by the pupils? Surely it is beyond contradiction or cavil that the pupils have a right to know, in advance of their preparation, exactly what the teacher is going to emphasize, exactly what he desires them to know most about,