confines its interposition." This principle has been recognized in our dealing with Santa Domingo and Hayti, and with some of the Central American republics. But hitherto it has not been publicly recognized by the present administration in so far as it is applicable to Mexico. In the light of these facts it would appear that President Wilson's whole thesis with reference to our attitude towards Mexico is wrong and always has been wrong. His contention that the United States has no political responsibilities in Mexico cannot be sustained in the light of historical facts. The chancelleries of the world assume and have a right to assume that we must acknowledge and meet the responsibilities incident to the enforcement of the Monroe Doctrine or we must abandon it.

It thus appears that President Wilson's course in dealing with the Mexican situation since his advent to power has been characterized by lack of definite policy, by vacillation, inconsistency and harmful meddling and has resulted in disaster to the interests of both countries. It is not too much to say that in a large measure it has been responsible for the complete collapse of organized government in Mexico, for the destruction of hundreds of lives of Americans and other foreign subjects domiciled in that country under the protection of treaty rights, for benumbing and paralyzing the national spirit of the American people, and that it has seriously impaired throughout the world the century-old reputation of the government of the United States for frankness and square dealing in its intercourse with foreign nations.

REACTION OF THE WAR UPON ISLAM

By James L. Barton, LL.D., Foreign Secretary of the American Board for Foreign Missions; formerly President

of Euphrates College, Harpot

The effect of the war upon different nations and countries will necessarily be far-reaching and fundamental. Geographies will be revised and new alignments between the leading powers will be inevitable. No political changes however great and startling can equal in significance those that the war is bringing about in the realm of religion. At first glance this may not be wholly apparent. We have been so absorbed with the diplomatic and national phases of the war that little thought has been given to those other questions whose relations to the horrors of a world conflict seem so remote. Two religions, representing together a following numbering nearly if not quite one-half of the population of the world, are chiefly concerned: These are Christianity and Islam. The effect upon the one differs greatly from the effect upon the other.

We all distinctly recall the question that was heard upon every side when the war had been thoroughly launched and we began to realize its significance: Has Christianity failed? This was asked not only in countries not Christian and by those who were no friends of Christianity, but in the very citadels and historic centers of the Christian church and by those who for decades had been conspicuous Christian leaders. Christian and non-Christian, believers in Christianity and its opponents, suggested, by inquiry, the failure of Christianity because it did not prevent the conflict. It is no part of our purpose to answer this question, but only to call attention to the significance of its asking. When before in all the history of wars-civil, domestic or international-has anyone ventured to suggest that Christianity might have prevented war? Wars have been taken for

granted and Christianity has been taken for granted, two quite separate ideas, and few if any have attempted to recognize the existence of any possible relations between them. But now, from widely separate portions of the globe, and put by people of vastly different points of view, simultaneously the inquiry is made as to how it comes about that Christianity did not prevent this deadly clash of nations. This fact shows conclusively that there has come to exist, through some means that we need not here discuss, a belief that Christianity possesses that which, if properly applied, ought to have intervened. It is a revelation that large numbers are of the opinion that there is a moral and religious force in Christianity that, if widely accepted and wisely applied, would make war of this character impossible. In a word, the war has caused the world to recognize that Christianity is a religion that has a national and international mission and that it will not come to its own and accomplish its purpose until it puts the stamp of brotherhood upon the national life of the entire world. The war has discovered to us and the world our failure hitherto to grasp the national mission of our religion.

The effect of the war upon Christianity is to bring to the front the fact that in Christianity there exists a moral and religious force capable of cementing the nations into a mighty brotherhood into which no unholy ambition for conquest or unholy race prejudice shall be permitted to disturb permanent order and lasting peace.

This subject is too far-reaching to be discussed within the limits of this article, the chief purpose of which is to give emphasis to the effect of the war upon Mohammedanism, a phase of the subject little understood but of vital significance to the 230,000,000 Moslems in the world and of striking interest to all Christians.

. Mohammedanism is probably less understood than any other religion. We are confused by the nomenclature of Islam and the variety of names which the followers of Mahomet bear in different countries. Repeatedly from the beginning of Islam and even today, race names are employed to designate religious adherents. The early Moslems

were called Arabs whether they were of that race or were Jews who had embraced Islam. In Spain Mohammedans were called Saracens as they were also designated in Palestine and Syria at the time of the Crusades. In India the Mohammedan Empire bore the name Mogul or Mongol. In Russia Moslems today are called Tartars; in Mindanao in the Philippine Islands they are called Moros; and in Turkey they bear the name Turk, quite without regard to the race to which they belong. This diversity of name in different countries to designate the followers of one religion, is necessarily confusing and may have given a false impression to many. The point for us constantly to bear in mind is that in spite of the diversity of name and race, all who profess belief in Islam are bound together by bonds that are stronger than those which unite most co-religionists.

To return again to the war and its effect upon Islam, we are confronted with the fact that the final outcome of the war will probably be more disastrous to Mohammedanism than to any or all other religions. It is upon Mohammedanism that the most startling effect has already been produced, while still more fundamental changes are threatening. We must bear in mind in the consideration of this subject that from the days of Mohammed until the present time Mohammedanism has not only been a religion but it has aspired to be a theocracy. Mohammed was not only the religious head of all who accepted him as the divine prophet of God, but he was the civil and military head as well of all his followers. The various caliphs who have claimed to be his successors upon earth have been both religious and civil rulers, commanding large military forces and exercising supreme civil power. The caliphs have been autocrats of the highest type, basing their civil authority upon their religious rights and responsibilities.

Another point to be borne in mind is the fact that one of the most prominent elements of strength in Mohammedanism, and that about which they have spoken with the greatest frequency, and the point which they have used the most widely in promoting their faith, is their expectation of ultimate control, as a religion and as a political power, of all the

nations of the world. Mohammedans have freely recognized that at present they do not hold a superior place among the nations, although at the time of Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottoman Empire, over which ruled the boasted Caliph of Islam, was the largest, strongest and most feared of any empire on the face of the earth.

In promoting Mohammedanism among pagan tribes and in holding up its supremacy to followers of other religions with whom Mohammedans came in contact, the ideal of the final triumph of Islam as the one conquering religion, with religious and civil power, has been constantly kept to the front. Mohammedans have believed that they would one day, through divine intervention, conquer and rule all the races of the earth, and that upon the throne of the nations was to sit the supreme, unconquerable, all-powerful Caliph of Islam. The humblest negro of Central Africa who has become a Mohammedan has been taught to think of himself as an integral part of a conquering world power.

In addition to the expectation of world conquest is their boast of religious unity. Christianity has been held in contempt by them because of its divisions. They have observed the gulf existing between Catholics and Protestants and the breaking up of Protestantism into many different sects, and have contrasted this divided state of Christendom with the unity of Islam. They have instanced their own simple creed, their one universally accepted, authoritative book, their acknowledged Prophet, and their religious principles respecting a holy war, and have been able to maintain that Mohammedanism is a united force operating through 230,000,000 of believers abroad in the world. They have claimed that not only are they able to live together in harmony but that they are ready to join forces in the resistance of any common enemy and, if need be, to die to the last man for the defense of their faith.

It is true that this unity has not been fully realized in actual practice, even under the leadership of the great caliphs and when the Ottoman Empire was the greatest and most mighty empire on earth. This fact was recognized by Abdul Hamid II, who made supreme effort to weld together