east, but added materially to political difficulties. Italy, benevolently neutral and remembering the ties of the late alliance, could be a great help in reaching the markets of the outside worldItaly joined to the Allies would be a new and serious danger along the weak Austrian frontier. Rumania, too, was likely to be dangerously influenced by the apparent impotence of Austrian

arms.

It is by no means impossible that the real historians who write of this war a generation hence may see that the best time for the war to have ended was in the beginning of 1915. The combatants as yet included only the original groups. The savage fighting and enormous destruction of property, while already serious, had nowhere reached the deadly development of the later periods. It then began to be evident that the war could not be a short one, and that its cost in blood and treasure would impose heavy burdens on mankind for many generations. Really determined action on the part of the leading powers not then involved in the war might possibly have halted the carnage. It was nearly two years later when Germany suggested peace, and the suggestion fell on ears deafened by what happened in 1915 and 1916.

What had been done in 1914 could never be forgotten, nor perhaps forgiven, but this period was one in which the dark future began to be correctly estimated. England still shuddered at the prospect of compulsory service, and the best blood of France was being drained. Germany must have been aware that succeeding years would be certain to roll up a great preponderance of man power on the allied side. Possibly it was the Prussian system which closed the mouths of those who might wisely have proposed to end the war then on the best terms possible.

British in Mesopotamia

England had declared war on Turkey in November, and on the 7th of that month a brigade of regular infantry from India (mostly native troops) captured a Turkish fort at Fao, a little town at the head of the Persian Gulf.

The British troops sailed on up the Schatt-el-Arab, which receives above Basra the combined waters of the Euphrates and the Tigris. An intrenched camp was established at Sanijeh, and here presently two more brigades arrived from India. After winning a battle at Sahil the combined military and naval forces advanced upon the important city of Basra, which was easily captured on Nov. 23. Early in December the fortified town of Kurna, fifty miles above Basra, was captured, and since then the British have remained in undisputed control of the whole delta. Bagdad, Turkey's main military station in Mesopotamia, is more than 300 miles to the north on the Tigris. This short and successful campaign gave Britain control of the region from which a Turkish force under German direction might have threatened India.

Defeat of Enver Pasha

In January, 1915, both Turkey and Russia had armies in Northern Persia, where on the 30th of the month, after a severe defeat, the Turks lost Tabriz, which they had occupied some time before. Several small Russian columns invaded Kurdistan, but were held close to the frontier by the vigorous resistance of Turkish regulars moved up from the interior.

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Meanwhile a Russian army numbering about 100,000 under General Woronzov began an advance toward Erzerum, the strongly fortified Turkish base in Armenia. Enver Pasha, with a Turkish army considerably stronger, defeated the Russians between Kaprikeui and Khorajust before Christmas. Enver attempted an elaborate enveloping manoeuvre, which involved well-nigh impossible marches by separate corps through high mountain passes choked with snow and impassable for either artillery or supply trains. One after the other the separated Turkish corps were defeated, although they all fought well, and by the middle of January the remains of Enver's army were in full retreat upon Erzerum, having lost probably one-third of their strength.

This dlisaster denied to Austria the

help that a successful Turkish diversion against Southeastern Russia would have provided. A successful Turkish campaign would certainly have diverted some of the Russian forces which were then threatening to pierce the Carpathians and invade the Plains of Hungary.

Egypt and the Suez Canal

On Dec. 17, 1915, England proclaimed Egypt to be a British protectorate, and a strong British force was organized under Major Gen. Sir John Maxwell to meet the attack which it was expected would be made upon the Suez Canal. Late in November there was a skirmish on the east side of the canal, at Katiyeh, between Bedouins and the British Camel Corps, and late in January skirmishing was renewed with small Turkish detachments which had crossed the 130 miles of desert east of the canal. In the first week of February a Turkish force of somewhat under a division attempted to cross the canal. The British troops were greatly helped by the gunfire of a number of British and French warships in the Canal, and by the end of the week the Turks were in full retreat across the desert. The lack of water had made it impossible for the Turks to move over the desert an army strong enough to cross the canal and invade Egypt, and the difficulty of the terrain kept the victorious British from pursuing the defeated enemy, who were able to carry off their guns and transport.

Attack on the Dardanelles

Gallipoli Peninsula is a hilly, irregular tongue of land something more than fifty miles in length and varying from three to ten miles in width. On the west the Aegean Sea breaks on a rugged shore, with a few stretches of sandy beach where boats may land. The eastern side of the peninsula guards the strait of the Dardanelles, through which all sea traffic must pass to Constantino*ple and the Black Sea beyond. This strait, from three-quarters of a mile to five miles in width, but averaging between two and three miles, is the most important waterway in the world, because it forms the only outlet by water

Asiatic Turks and miminize the danger of German attacks upon Egypt or India. Even more important would be the opening of an all-the-year route by which Russian grain could come out to England and France in ships which should carry back guns and munitions so greatly needed in Russia. In addition, and perhaps paramount to all other incentives for a campaign against Constantinople, was the fact that the ancient city on the Golden Horn was the one great prize in Europe that might enrich the spoils of the victors. Berlin and Vienna would remain German and Austrian, after the final treaty should be signed, but the Turk's capital might be expected to change hands and fly a new flag.

Russia seemed likely to force a way through the Balkans from the north. England determined with French help to reach the goal first-by naval means if

possible, but by a combined military and naval force in case the 'strait should prove too strong for the marine attack alone. There was a precedent in British naval annals for the belief that a fleet might force its way through, for in February, 1807, seven ships of the line under Sir John Duckworth forced the

SIR IAN HAMILTON, British Commander at Gallipoli

passage, silencing forts and sinking Turkish ships. The Turks then fired stone shot two feet in diameter, but when the Italians attempted to rush a fleet of torpedo boats through in a night attack in 1910 they were defeated by modern guns and searchlights installed by German engineers. The fortifications were greatly strengthened and the artillery increased after the outbreak of the war in August, 1914. The Turkish coasts were difficult for attack, and the swift current of the strait made the use of floating mines a dangerous adjunct to the shore line defenses. The forts on both sides of the Dardanelles were strongly garrisoned, and a large mobile force of Turkish infantry was intrenched in the very difficult hill country of the peninsula. A number of German officers were on duty with these Turkish forces.

Operations at Gallipoli

England seized the excellent harbor of Mudros in the Greek Island of Lemnos and made that the base of the naval forces operating against Gallipoli. On Feb. 18 the British and French fleets attacked and soon silenced the old-fashioned stone forts at the entrance to the Dardanelles, but beyond these antiquated forts lay a series of mine fields blocking the channel. Mine sweepers under cover of a heavy fire from the fleet endeavored to clear the channel and open a way for the fighting units of the fleets. The operations of the mine sweepers were made very difficult by the fire of field batteries and heavy howitzers concealed among the hills and shifted cleverly whenever located by the attacking forces. In the middle of March, in the midst of a heavy gun fire, the Turks skillfully directed some large mines, which sank three battleships, two British and one French.

After a month of fruitless and costly fighting it was decided that the strait could not be forced by naval attack alone, and a combined British and French army was mobilized to land and attack the Turks in co-operation with the fleets. The French Division of Territorials and Senegalese was commanded by General d'Amade. General Ian Hamilton had the Twenty-ninth Division of British regulars with the Royal Naval Division and the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps. These forces were concentrated in Mudros Harbor and held until the Spring gales had blown themselves out and there was promise of a quiet sea for the very difficult operation of landing the expeditions through the surf.

On April 25, at daybreak, the French and British fleets bombarded all the Turkish positions and the transports sent their human freight ashore. The French landed on the Asiatic side of the strait to attack the powerful fortifications on that side. The British effected a number of landings on the southern end of Gallipoli, but the main attacks were intended to be those near Gaba Tepe and Cape Helles.

The forces attacking in the Cape Helles region landed at three small

beaches, where great difficulties were overcome by extreme bravery, but the losses involved in these landing operations were appalling. The Turkish artillery and machine gunners were firing at ranges from 100 to 300 yards. Barbed wire entanglements had been set in the surf off shore, and the little beaches were mined. Strong detachments of Turkish infantry were well concealed on the rough, scrub-covered hillside, and were dislodged in savage bayonet fighting by the survivors of the landing parties. Large numbers of British soldiers were killed in the boats by machine gun and rifle fire.

Christening of the "Anzacs "

The Australians Won imperishable fame at the beach about fifteen miles north of Cape Helles, near Gaba Tepe, where they fought all day and all night singing their song, "Australia Will Be There." The Turks attacked constantly with heavy infantry detachments, but the fleet moved in and rained projectiles upon them. Finally, after a terrific ninety-six-hour battle, the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps won and fortified their position. In commemoration of their heroism this hitherto unnamed beach became famous under the name A-N-Z-A-C.

The British won a footing along the southwestern shores of Gallipoli at a cost to the battalions engaged of from one-third to one-half of their strength. The survivors were too exhausted to drive the attack into the hills, and the Turks were given a breathing spell in which they brought up reinforcements of men and munitions.

The French Corps landed on April 26, at V. Beach, below Sedd-el-Bahr, and, not encountering very great opposition, fought their way inland for a mile on the following day and joined hands with the British on their left. The united forces attacked the Turkish town of Krithia on April 28, but when within about 1,300 yards of the objective were forced back by powerful Turkish attacks. They dug themselves in finally and held their lines until the Turks delivered terrific new attacks on May 1. The first lines of the

Turkish infantry had been deprived of cartridges and attacked with the bayonet only. They carried the front of the position, broke through to the second line and in the darkness of a moonless night cut their way through both French and British until stopped by the British supports. This battle lasted five days, and night after night the Turks attacked with the bayonet.

By May 5 the British Twenty-ninth Division had lost one-half its men and nearly 70 per cent. of its officers. Nevertheless, on May 6 the Allied forces mustered strength and courage to attack the hill of Achi Baba, which dominated the lower ground toward the water held by the French and British. After an all-day battle, in which the losses were extreme, the line had won an advance of 200 yards. This battle continued for days and culminated in a further advance of some 600 to 700 yards on the evening of May 8, when some of the brave Australians and New Zealanders had been brought down from Anzac to help. There were no other great battles, but there was constant fighting through the remaining weeks of May.

Achi Baba Almost Taken

On June 4 the Allies made another grand attack, having meanwhile been reinforced by the newly arrived Fortysecond Division. After a prolonged bombardment an advance of 600 to 700 yards was won and the summit of Achi Baba almost taken. The Turks rallied, and in a brave counterattack recaptured a field work called the Haricot, which the French infantry had stormed and garrisoned with Senegalese troops. From this position the Turks enfiladed the British lines and forced both the British Royal Naval Division and the Manchester Brigade to abandon the lines which they had won at a terrible cost.

On June 21 the French won again the Haricot work, and on the 28th the British, in a brilliant attack, advanced a thousand yards. This success was especially notable because the 10,000 British soldiers were all new men of not over six months' training, who charged up hill in an attack perfectly co-ordi

While the allied forces awaited the arrival of heavy reinforcements promised for midsummer a plan was matured for a great attack. This intended that the troops near Cape Helles should fight a holding battle while a powerful attack to the north at Anzac should aim to win the dominating heights midway of the peninsula from which infantry might gain control of the highway to Constantinople and artillery could shell by direct fire the Turkish fortifications along the strait. In addition the new forces were to be landed still further north at Suvla Bay, three miles above Anzac, and attempt to turn the Turkish right flank. While these attacks were to be concerted, the actions must necessarily be separate battles fought by armies separated from each other. The plan was for the attack at Anzac to be made on Aug. 6 and on the night of the 6th-7th (moonless) the new army was to be landed at Suvla.

The splendid Australian troops at Anzac in July dug and hid under cover twenty-five miles of dugouts for the concealment of the 30,000 men who were to reinforce them preparatory to the great attack. The new troops were landed with great caution at night to hide the arrangements from the watchful Turks, always ready to hurry reinforcements to any threatened part of the line. In addition to providing a hiding place for the 30,000 newcomers the Australians carried ashore and hid hundreds of draft animals and hundreds of tons of supplies. The navy brought over a distance of 500 miles the eighty tons of fresh water required by this army daily, and this, too, was stored in hidden tanks ashore.

Battle of Suvla Bay

The battle in the Cape Helles sector opened promptly and raged with great

ferocity from Aug. 6 to Aug. 13. Its object was achieved, for not only was the large original force of Turks held there, but strong reinforcements were brought down from the north.

For several days the warships bombarded the Turkish positions on the Lonesome Pine plateau, which was the immediate objective in the Anzac sector. Late in the afternoon of Aug. 6, after a whirlwind of shells had brought the bombardment to its culmination, the Australians leaped from their trenches and charged the Turkish lines. They won the covered trenches and in five days and nights of constant counterattacks succeeded in holding them. This long struggle was almost all the time a hand-to-hand duel with bayonets and bombs.

As the battle at Lonesome Pine developed, the troops destined for the attack to the north left Anzac and marched along shore to the scene of their effort. Several strong outposts were rushed most gallantly, but the Turks held the main hill crests valiantly, and all efforts to dislodge them failed. As this night battle was in progress transports crowded into Suvla Bay and the new 30,000 men were landed. The beach was mined, and defended by riflemen as well, so that the new army began to lose men as it stepped ashore. The mission of this army was to seize the high hills inclosing the low-lying basin back of the bay, but they suffered vital hours to slip through their fingers for one reason or another, and meanwhile the Turks, at midnight on the 8th-9th, got strong forces into the critical positions and thereby wrote failure at the bottom of this gory page in English military history.

On the morning of Aug. 8 the British and Australian regiments renewed the battle north of Anzac and gained some promising successes, although at appalling cost. The delayed advance on their left from Suvla nullified these successes and made the battle a useless waste of life. British regiments which had won one of the most vital hill crests were shelled and decimated by their own war