the country maintained an almost equal level. Government treatment of this I.W.W. by-product of Socialism was at first cautious; eventually it was firm and vigorous. Enemy agents, spies and doubtful foreign characters were watched and many quietly arrested and interned after Apr. 2, and the acquisition of the necessary powers. There was an active Bureau of Investigation and the Department of Justice helped wherever possible. As early as Apr. 6 Mr. Gregory, Attorney-General, ordered the arrest, without reference to Courts or warrants, of 60 alleged ringleaders in various plots-all German subjects and known to be active enemies; this was promptly followed by the President's Proclamation defining treason, its nature and penalties under American laws; and another prohibiting German-owned Insurance Companies from transacting Marine or War insurance.

The first legislative action affecting these elements was the Trading with the Enemy Bill which, amongst other things, placed all Foreign language publications and also disloyal or seditious English publications, under a censorship composed of local Postmasters and made it unlawful to circulate or transport publications non-mailable under the Espionage Bill. Mr. Burleson, Postmaster-General, issued an explanation on Oct. 26 of the terms of the latter Act and defined the nature of such publications as any which advocated treason or forcible resistance to a law, gave false reports as to the war, taught insubordination in military or naval forces, obstructed enlistment, or violated any part of the Espionage Act, or were printed in foreign languages without the local Postmaster's consent. A barred zone was established (Nov. 10) at certain points within which enemy aliens were not allowed, a Censorship organized, Enemy Fire and Casualty insurance ordered into liquidation and a National Intelligence Service formed to combine the work of all Secret Service bureaux. As the year closed street meetings labelled Socialist and pertaining to the violent branch of that vague-thinking body were prohibited or broken up and their headquarters in Chicago and New York searched and papers seized. On Sept. 5 the Government took drastic action to stop the I.W.W. branch of the anti-War agitation and by a co-ordinated plan the headquarters at Chicago, Minneapolis, Denver, Salt Lake City, Duluth, Detroit, and many other centres right through to the Pacific Coast and San Francisco, Seattle, Los Angeles, Tacoma, Portland, etc., were raided.

Large quantities of letters, checks, literature, and documents were seized and Scranton, Pa., found to be the real headquarters of the organization. On the 28th, under blanket indictment charging a nation-wide conspiracy by 166 leaders of the I.W.W. to hamper the Government's war efforts, wholesale arrests were made in different centres which included W. D. Haywood, Richard Brazier, G. Audreychine and other officials, with R. H. Chaplin, editor of Solidarity, C. Rothfisher, Editor of Berguinkas, and by Oct. 2, 140 others of whom more than half were Germans or Austrians. The indictments against these men covered 40 printed pages and alleged 15,000 offences under ten specific heads-one of the worst being a book on Sabotage by Emil Fouget, and published by the organization

in different languages, which gave detailed instruction to strikers how to destroy ovens, disable machines and injure industries so as to indefinitely delay production.

There were many other Court cases dealing with matters of sedition or pro-German work. The payment of $60,000 by Wolf Von Igel, acting for the German Ambassador, to the Hindu, Dr. Chakraberty, and a German chemist named Sckunner, for the fomenting of a rebellion in India, as well as a widespread conspiracy to this end, were indicated in papers found when these men were arrested at New York on Mar. 6; at New York on Oct. 5 Hugo Schmidt testified as to the $1,600,000 placed to his credit in 1916 by Von Bernstorff and the German Foreign Office for the French operations of Bolo Pasha; at Chicago in October four men named Boehm, Wehde, Jacobsen and Gupta, were tried before Judge Landis for stirring up sedition in India and receiving, through Baron Von Reiswitz, $20,000 to help in a plot which ran in varied activities from San Francisco to Siam.

A Court-Martial was held during November and December on more than 100 American soldiers for pro-German utterances and activities and the sentencing of one-third to the Penitentiary and the others to dishonourable discharge from the Army; the continued trial from 1916 occurred of Franz Bopp, Von Brincken, Von Schack, Von Koolbergen and others at San Francisco for (1) violating American neutrality by setting afoot a military enterprise against Canada (C.P.R.) in aid of Germany, and (2) of conspiring to dynamite munition shipments, with conviction and two-year terms of imprisonment; at New York on Feb. 21 Sander and Wunnenberg-the latter for 25 years a naturalized citizen of the United States—were arrested on the charge of employing agents, on an extensive scale, to obtain maps, photographs, and other military information in England and Ireland for the benefit of Germany; at Hoboken (Mar. 6) Fritz Kolb and Hans Schwartz were arrested charged with plotting to aid Germany by blowing up munition plants in the States whether the United States was at war or neutral did not matter.

On Mar. 9 Ali Fritzen was arrested on an indictment charging him, Von Papen, Von Igel and Tauscher, with sharing in a conspiracy to blow up the Welland Canal, pleaded guilty and was given a short term in the Penitentiary; for plotting to place incendiary bombs made at Hoboken in the cargoes of ships leaving New York, six Germans were on Apr. 6 sentenced to terms in gaol; on the 7th a number of Germans were arrested at Buffalo, Chicago, Tuckerton, N.J., El Paso, etc., together with Rao Chandra of the Hindu Ghadyr, and charged with plots of varied character-the latter being mixed up with Chakraberty and Gupta in the India plots engineered by Von Papen and Von Igel; at San Francisco on July 7, 139 indictments were fyled against R. Capelle of the North German Lloyds, and H. C. Kauffman and A. H. Von Schack of the local German Consulate, F. Von Papen, C. D. Bunker, local Shipping Agent, Capt. T. A. Anderson of the Sacramento, Ram Chandra, Louis Hengsler, Hans Tauscher, husband of Mme. Gadski, and others

prominent in Pacific coast shipping, charging them with assisting to supply German warships in the Pacific with arms, ammunition, coal, and with having planned revolution in India, and acted generally as if the United States were at war with England.

On Aug. 9 Alvo Von Alvensleben and two other Germans were arrested at Seattle and interned on the charge of plotting "to obtain military secrets from the naval station at Bremerton, and the promotion of German propaganda"; at Concord, Mass. (Sept. 19), Gaston Means, when arrested, was found to have a mass of documents connected with Von Papen's spy system; a raid in New York on Sept. 27 resulted in the arrest of 90 skilled German and other foreign mechanics employed in plants working on Government contracts, and the finding in their possession of important Navy details, blue-prints, charts, maps, and other documents; at New York on Oct. 11 indictments against Reister, Zeffert, Uhde, Von Rintelen (already in gaol), Bode, Wolpert, Sternberg, Scheele, and others who had fled the country charged them "with conspiring to destroy Allied ships at this port before the States entered the War" and included the ever-present Von Papen.

Government investigations in October as to the schemes of Bolo Pasha showed that Pavenstedt, a New York banker who conducted Bolo's negotiations with Von Bernstorff, had lent $15,000 to Ridder of the New York Staats-Zeitung which had come from Dr. Dernberg when Director of German propaganda in America; others of Pavenstedt's cheques were payable to the Deutsches Journal (dated Jan. 12, 1916, and endorsed by W. R. Hearst), and one of Jan. 31, 1917, was payable to the American Truth Society and endorsed by J. A. O'Leary; indictments were returned at Newark on Nov. 9 against Benedict Prieth and other officials of the New Jersey Freie Zeitung, charging them with treason based upon 29 editorial extracts from this

paper.

At the trial of A. C. Kaltschmidt of Detroit charged with "conspiracy to dynamite private and public property in the United States and Canada," R. Herrman testified that Kaltschmidt engaged him to inspect the tunnel under the St. Clair River between Port Huron and Sarnia, Ontario, in order to see if its destruction by dynamite was practicable, and that he finally decided to use a device which was to be sent into the tunnel with a time-clock bomb. Other evidence showed that this man received $28,000 from the German Embassy, and Fritz Neff, who made the bombs, testified that more than a year before Kaltschmidt told him Germans in Detroit were plotting to dynamite factories in the United States and Canada. Karl Schmidt stated that in 1915 he was sent by Kaltschmidt to Duluth to purchase dynamite and then to the district around Nipigon, Ontario, to inspect the tracks of the C.P.R.-though he did not know of any intended violence. Five of the prisoners were convicted and Kaltschmidt on Dec. 22 was sentenced to four years imprisonment and fined $20,000 and the others in proportion— Neff's wife being given two years and fined $15,000. At the end of the year San Francisco, which had long been the headquarters of Indian sedition on this continent, saw the trial of Bhagwan Singh,

also known in Vancouver, and charged with a share in creating the troubles which arose at Singapore and the later plots at Lahore during the War. Like many of the other Hindus already mentioned he was associated with The Ghadyr of San Francisco.

Such were a few of the indications of that strong undercurrent of sedition and violence which moved below the surface of American society and life during these years. It took all forms and used all possible instruments, it was in the main sordid in motive or brutal in plan and practice, it had none of the high ideals which, in mistaken but obvious ways, influence open rebellion against alleged wrongs. Of course, the German-American Alliance, said to represent 3,000,000 members when the United States entered the War, professed loyalty; in fact it did so at an Executive meeting on Feb. 8, and by Resolution stated that "in case of hostilities the Society will organize regiments of German-Americans and fight under the command of President Wilson as loyally as we did under Abraham Lincoln for the preservation of the Union." Dr. C. A. Hexamer, the President, also announced that they had instructed collections for the German Red Cross and other Funds to cease in the Society and that he had written to its members urging loyalty to America. Through its Executive, the New York German Alliance on Sept. 3 re-affirmed its loyalty but did not discuss the War though it did receive a report stating that 21,000 children in the State schools were studying German. It was not considered wise to hold German Conventions, either National or State, in view of the plots publicly known and publicly unknown. Despite the loyalty of men like Maj.-Gen. J. E. Kuhn, Congressman Julius Kahn, Otto H. Kahn, the New York banker, and many private German citizens of the United States, it is not difficult to estimate the danger to the country which centred in this movement and its racial, Socialistic and other collateral elements.

Pacifists in The result of educational looseness of thought, the United public ignorance of the complexities of international States; Peace Organizations life or the living lessons of history, contempt for and the War. precedent and the products of past thinking or experience many of the difficulties innate in democracywere embodied in United States Pacificism during these War years. The conditions created were not fundamental but the vicious and the weak, the corrupt and the foolish, the merely selfish and the wholly German, the American sentimentalist and the Germanized militarist, were merged in a confused mass which tried to control public opinion by vigorous agitation in favour of Peace. As the New York Tribune put it (Aug. 24): "Sedition has gone hand in hand with Pacificism, and the pro-Germans have joined hands with the anarchists. There has been a din and disturbance on the surface unparalleled in our history."

Yet the great majority of the people swung into line behind the President and presented a strong war front-weakened only in places by the treachery and folly of the Pacifists. The commonplaces of this school were and are well known and were summarized

in a spirit of earnest belief by Rev. J. Howard Melish (Holy Trinity Church, New York) in The Outlook. United States rights to him were equally menaced by Germany and by Great Britain; the assassin's bullet of a German Submarine was preferable to the slow starvation of a British blockade; all the belligerents were beyond the pale of morality; to spread and advance democracy the best course was to keep out of the War and ensure a peace without victory; it was the duty of America to suffer and endure and to appeal from Germany drunk to Germany sober!

Such views in varied form were preached hourly and daily during these years, from the public rostrum and the pulpit down to the soap-box of New York parks-with millions of the people also reached by the literary propaganda which went into every city, town and hamlet. Some of the advocates were sincere and honest; others were described by Elihu Root on his return from Russia (New York, Aug. 14) as follows: "Here, as in Russia, German money is seeping through the country seeking to undermine the press and public men and to establish a structure of treason. Here, as there, are weak sentimentalists who lend themselves to the most terrible enemy of peace and justice and humanity since the fall of Ghengis Khan. Here, as there, are men who proclaim their patriotism and sell their country." There were Pacifists such as Prof. Bushnell Hart of Harvard, who described the causes of the War as too numerous, deeply concealed, and involved, for common understanding; Prof. D. A. Muzzey of Columbia University, who said in a speech on Feb. 6 that "before going to war I would wait until they had sunk seventy times seven ships, and then I wouldn't go to war-I would wait until they had insulted us and then till they were sick of insulting us"; Prof. Scott Nearing of Toledo University, who was a leader in the anti-war movement and thought the matter of going into the War could be settled best by a Referendum; Amos Pinchot, who denounced "the dollar patriots and undesirable citizens" who were forcing the Republic into war; Prof. Simon N. Patten of the University of Pennsylvania, who was a conspicuous and respected believer in the ideal side of Pacificism; Tom Watson of Georgia, whose paper The Jeffersonian was so scurrilous as to be unquotable.

These men, and others of every type. were mixed up together with a common label of Pacifist. It was sometimes unjust, just as was the suspicion that any but a small minority of the 60 per cent. of American University professors, whom Prof. W. H. Wood of Hamline University stated to have studied in Germany, were disloyal. Most of them were loyal Americans and only a minority were Pacifists (even in principle) but those that were so became prominent. Henry Ford continued to be a type of many Americans-active in Pacificism until his country was in the War and then publicly loyal to his Government. As he put it at Detroit on Oct. 16, so many felt: "Although there is not a man in the world more opposed to war than myself, I feel that we must support our Government to the limit in this war because our President is pledged to abolish future wars as far as possible." Yet, only