M. Ribot was Minister of Foreign Affairs. On Nov. 16 Georges Clémenceau, the stormy petrel of French politics, eloquent and vigorous, critic and wrecker of many Ministries, journalist and radical, became Premier and promised a War-Government of effective force. To the Deputies on the 19th he said: "Too many criminal attempts have already resulted on our battlefront in the shedding of French blood. Further weakness would be complicity. We shall be without weakness, as without violence. All the accused before courts-martial-that is our policy. No more pacifist campaigns; no more German intrigues; neither treason nor semi-treason. War, nothing but war. If Germany to-morrow expressed the wish to enter into the society of nations, I would not agree for Germany's signature cannot be trusted. You ask what my war aims are. My aim is to be victorious." A vote of confidence followed of 418 to 6.

It was announced that there would be no elections until the War was over-as there had been none since it commenced. On the eve of the November Allied Conference M. Clémenceau said to the press: "Solidarity and discipline will give us peace, peace through victory, the just peace. With us there is no question of 'German organization,' under which the soul of a man is smothered. We are free peoples. In full independence and by the untrammelled exercise of our reason we agree to all the sacrifices that are necessary." As to Russia the new Government, through M. Pichon, Foreign Minister, stated on Dec. 28 that "the Allies' representatives are all unable to recognize a Government which made an armistice without consulting its Allies, opened negotiations for an immediate peace, summoning all belligerents to reply immediately whether they accepted these negotiations, and threatened to declare void all foreign financial obligations created by previous Governments."

The return of Alsace-Lorraine to France was insisted upon during the year with reiterated vigour. The enforced seizure of these Provinces in 1870, the steady effort to Germanize them, the repeated statements of German leaders, from Bismarck down, that they were necessary for strategic reasons and as a glacis between the two countries, could not be forgotten-aside from the ruthless occupation of new territories in the present war. These latter regions added to the others meant absolute economic domination for Germany and, if all were recovered, for France. S. S. McClure gave statistics in his Obstacles to Peace as to this situation and pointed out that: "If Germany were to hold the parts of France now in her hands and retain Alsace and Lorraine, Germany's iron production would be 41,307,143 tons, and that of France only 9,014,760 tons. But if France wins, drives the invaders out of the country, and recovers Alsace and Lorraine, her iron production would be 42,850,265 tons and that of Germany only 7,471,638 tons." There also was said to be in Alsace 3,000,000,000 tons of Potash worth about $35,000,000,000. Alsace was said to have furnished 2,000 officers to the French armies in the War; its official population was German

and its people French-though a part of them spoke a German dialect. In Lorraine a smaller part of the people were French and in both Provinces a considerable German population had been planted in the past 40 years. A racial, social and general boycott had been maintained for years by the French against their aggressive conquerors.

M. Ribot in his first declaration as Premier (Mar. 21) had declared that "we shall wage war with the firm resolve to recover the provinces formerly wrested from us and obtain reparation and guarantees to prepare a durable peace." The Chamber of Deputies on June 5 declared by Resolution (453 to 56) that "the War imposed upon Europe by the aggression of Imperialist Germany necessitates the return of Alsace-Lorraine to the mother country, together with the liberation of invaded territories and just reparation for damage." M. Painlevé, in his first statement as Premier (Sept. 18) insisted upon the return of these Provinces; M. Ribot as Foreign Minister on Oct. 12 declared that "our soldiers have made up their minds we shall gain the victory, we shall regain Alsace-Lorraine." There was, early in the year, an alleged diplomatic effort, through Prince Von Bülow in Switzerland, to detach France from her alliance by the cession of these Provinces, but a little later Herr Von Kühlmann declared publicly that such a restoration of territory was out of the question.

Meantime the War had progressed with the French, during this year, on the offensive. The Germans were driven out of a considerable region of France with the aid of the British armies but the wreck and ravage wrought by the retiring enemy were beyond description. Roye and Péronne, Nestle, Mametz, Montauban, Lassigny, Arras and Albert, and many more centres of onetime happy and artistic life were once more French-but they were French ruins. The victories of Moronvillers, Verdun and Malmaison were splendid proofs of strength and courage. During April and May sedition had developed and there was a situation approaching demoralization in a part of the Army and amongst a part of the people. Recovery came with the organizing efforts of Pétain and the strong hand which Clémenceau showed as Premier and, by the close of the year, France once more stood like a rock facing the storms of war.

As to men France was not exhausted in 1917, though its limit of possible reserves appears to have been reached. M. André Tardieu, Commissioner to the United States, reported to the Secretary of War at Washington on July 30 that "the strength in men, now present in the zone of the armies alone, shows the maximum figure reached during the War. This figure, which amounts to a little less than 3,000,000 men, exceeds by over 1,000,000 the number of men actually in the said zone at the beginning. We are certain, with the resources of our metropolitan colonial depôts, to be able to maintain that number up to its present level for a long time to come." Constantly decreasing casualties were alleged and it was stated that at this time the French armies held 574 kilometres (344 miles)

of the front, the British 138 (82 miles), the Belgians 27 (16 miles). Regarding artillery, etc., M. Tardieu stated that they were amply furnished with "75s" since the beginning of the War: "The number of these guns has constantly increased; it is adequate to our needs. As for the heavy artillery, we had in August, 1914, 300 guns grouped in regiments, in June, 1917, we had 6,000 of them, mostly modern. Our output in munitions was arranged in August, 1914, for 13,000 shots of 75s' a day. It is now arranged for 250,000 shots of '75s' and 100,000 shots of heavy guns.'

It may be added that the French maintained the secret of their famous "75s" from friend and foe alike, and that Germany spent men and money and wrung dry the elements of science in vain efforts to discover it. In March the 1917 class recruits were called out by legislation; in April General Foch and five other Generals were retired, General Lyautey, late Minister of War, was sent to Morocco as Commander, and Gen. Pétain, the hero of Verdun, became Commander-in-Chief in succession to Gen. Nivelle. The latter event arose out of the partial failure of the April offensive under Nivelle when a considerable advance was made with St. Quentin and Laon menaced but not taken. In December General Sarrail was succeeded at Salonika by General Guillemet and French troops were sharing with Italian in the British advance to Jerusalem. During 1917, to sum up, the French had made many gains and though not always reaching their objectives were not at any time actually defeated-600 square miles of territory and 300 villages and five large towns were reconquered, and more than 62,000 prisoners, over 1,400 cannon and thousands of machine guns taken from the enemy. Mastery of the air was held for a time and strategical conditions greatly improved. In Aviation France won special fame and such names as Guynemer, Heurteaux, Brocard, Dorme, Nungesser, Navarre, Pégoud, Lenoir, Chaput, and many more were amongst the "Aces" or French laureates of the air. Guynemer, in particular, who was killed in September, brought down 53 enemy planes in less than two years.

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As to French internal conditions during this year-apart from the 7,000 square miles held by the Germans-there was mingled sorrow and optimism, depression and determination, of feeling. As in all the Allied countries there were treason-mongers and plotters, but the spirit of the nation rose above them and 'carried on." Women were everywhere in war-work and duties from nursing to manual labour. In Paris the luggage at stations and docks was handled by women, railway crews were composed of women; in one of the larger munition factories there were 9,000 women working and in it 30,000 shells were turned out daily. Although France was deprived of 50 per cent. of her resources in coal, 90 per cent. of her iron-ore, and 80 per cent. of her iron and steel manufacturing establishments by the German invasion she had since created and developed an enormous industry which not only supplied her own forces but contributed a great output to the aid of her Alliesincluding all kinds of supplies to the Belgians, shells to the Serbian

army, rifles and artillery to the Russians, and to the Roumanians all kinds of war material from field guns to gas masks. French technical experts and specialists were sent to Russia to aid production; raw materials were supplied to Italy, together with a number of batteries of heavy artillery and many shells. Helmets, trenchshields, trench mortars, aluminum and chemical corps were also furnished to Italy with a corps of aviators for the protection of Venice and, at the close of 1917, when the Italian retreat occurred, a large French force and much armament were rushed to that Front. In fact not the least of the wonderful things accomplished by this nation, facing a ruthless enemy on its own soil, was the scientific industry which it evolved from the rochambite used at Verdun to the mobilization of laboratories, plants and technical appliances, photography, electricity, wireless and the aeroplane. There was in 1917 a great lack of coal-which at one time was $75.00 a ton-and much privation and suffering as a result; meat and vegetables were costly, sugar scarce and butter and eggs luxuries; bread was high-priced and the War bread unpalatable, with wheat supplies very short during most of the year; cattle were scarce and in July the supply of oats exhausted; the new harvest was expected to leave three months at least for which wheat must be imported.

Financially, the basic wealth of the country maintained its credit and responsibilities. According to a statement by M. Tardieu to the United States Government (elsewhere quoted) there had been expended 82,647,000,000 francs from the beginning of the War to July 30-or about $16,000,000,000. From other countries (chiefly Britain and the United States) she had borrowed $1,500,000,000 and to her Allies had loaned $1,000,000,000. In July the Chamber of Deputies approved a graduated income tax under which wages, agricultural earnings, salaries and pensions were taxed 334 per cent; commercial and manufacturing profits 414 per cent; revenues from investment 5 per cent. Exemptions and deductions reduced these rates for the smaller incomes. A new War Loan-preceding ones had realized 2,200 and 2,000 million. dollars respectively-was floated at the close of the year with over 10,000 million francs, or about $2,000,000,000 subscribed. At this date it was estimated that the War had cost France $20,000,000,000, of which $8,000,000,000 had been expended in 1917.

As to American relations there was great rejoicing at Paris when that country joined the Allies and President Poincaré on Apr. 5 sent a despatch to President Wilson describing the United States as faithful to its ideals and traditions. As months passed and American loans, supplies, aviators, nurses, Red Cross helpers and, finally, soldiers, reached France the import of the new alliance became obvious. In September the American Red Cross Council voted $1,000,000 to aid the families of French officers and soldiers who might need help and by the close of the year there were 300,000 Americans on the French and British fronts. On the other hand France freely granted supplies and munitions and artillery to the American troops and helped greatly in their training.

Italy: Its
Difficulties

and Disasters
in 1917.

Italy faced the crisis of existence as an historic nationality during this period. Unsuspected difficulties were developing in its military ranks from the first of the year but were held in check by the victories of the summer and the sweep toward Trieste; known problems of German propaganda were seething throughout the country but were kept more or less beneath the surface. Baron Sonnino, the Foreign Minister, told the Deputies (June 21) that the Government's war aims were frontiers which would guarantee the independence of a pacific State, with reparation for the Belgian iniquities and the unification of an independent Poland. Italy, at this time, was essentially a democratic country, the King, the first citizen of his nation as well as its hereditary sovereign. The Court was democratic, the King and Queen helpful, in a myriad ways, to their people. The August offensive was a reply to the Papal Peace note; an intimation that Trieste, though Austria's chief sea-port, was demanded, as well as the Trentino which Austria would, at this time, have been willing to surrender. It was the greatest Italian effort of the War and the army was, apparently, in good shape and had been strengthened largely during the spring of 1917; it was provided with a greatly increased number of heavy guns, warm clothing and supplies, and an excellent Aerial service; it was supported by the visits of Generals Foch and Robertson to Count Cadorna, by the help of France and Britain in various forms and by improved engineering and transport corps. In March, when preparations were under way, a semi-official statement was made:

In order to secure the supplies for this new army, beginning, perhaps, with scarcely 500,000 men, and now estimated at 3,000,000, the nation has put in operation a total of 2,179 factories, employing 468,940 persons, of whom 72,324 are classed as skilled workmen. There are, further, 1,181 minor projectile factories, employing 35,000 persons, To these totals must also be added a countless number of uniform and clothing factories in every part of the land. The War, so far, has cost Italy about $4,000,000,000, of which sum a little over one-third has been obtained through war loans subscribed by her own people. The national savings banks show a decided increase of deposits to a total of 2,200,000,000 lire, or $440,000,000. In addition, there are deposits in private banking institutions amounting to $1,125,000,000.

Italy had also been maintaining an army in Albania which connected with the Anglo-French expedition at Salonika; she had helped to blockade the Adriatic ports of Austria, and in the Anglo-French expedition to the Dardanelles; she aided in the transportation of troops and material thither and sent a contingent to Palestine. Yet at the beginning of the War Italy's army was not an effective one in the German modern sense of the word; her industrial resources were limited, and not easy of development; she produced no coal and no iron, and the output of her steel works was small. Public opinion was not then and was not in 1917 all it should have been and the country was permeated with German agents, money, influence and Pacifist talk. Meanwhile, however, the army had driven back the great Austrian offensive of 1916, had fought for two years amid clouds, and on the sides and tops of mighty moun