ally has the Perfect Indicative, which is often translated by the English "Past Perfect."

2. A Temporal clause introduced by dum, while, if it refers to past time, regularly has the "vivid Present" Indicative, which is usually translated by the English "Past Progressive."

249. Causal Clauses. In the complex sentence, We fight for our country, because we love liberty, the principal clause is we fight for our country. The verb we fight expresses the action as a fact, that is, as true at the time of speaking (the present). The subordinate clause, because we love liberty, gives the cause or reason of the action expressed in the principal clause, and is, therefore, called a Causal clause. It is introduced by a Causal conjunction (because). The verb, we love (Present Indicative), expresses the action of the verb as a fact, that is, as true at the time of speaking (the present).

The sentence becomes in Latin: Prō patriā nostrā pugnāmus, quod (or quia) lībertātem amāmus.1

EXAMPLES OF CAUSAL CLAUSES

1. Rex Rōmānōs vincere non potuit, quod Horatius pontem defendit, The king could not conquer the Romans, because Horatius defended the bridge.

2. Patriam nostram amāmus, quia nostra est, We love our country, because it is ours.

3. Illōs discipulōs, quod fidï sunt, laudāmus, We praise those pupils, because they are faithful.

1 Instead of a subordinate (causal) clause we may use a coördinate statement with the conjunction nam, for, or enim (postpositive), for, thus: Prō patriā nostrā pugnāmus, nam lībertātem (or libertatem enim) amāmus.

250. Rule. - A Causal clause introduced by quod or

quia, because, has the Indicative to assert the reason as a

throw against, oppose obíciō, -ere, obiécī, ob

object, objection

throw across, pierce trāício, -ere, trãiécī,

trãiéctus

SECOND SECTION

TRANSLATION EXERCISES 1

252. A. 1. Ubi Porsena, rex Etruscus, multos et pedites et equites in (against) incolas Romae, duxit, Horatius pontem defendit. 2. Magnō timōre Rōmānī commovebantur, quod

1 First read the marginal summary in 253, and observe in the text the Latin equivalents of the proper names. See the footnotes.

mūrī nōn erant firmi; multam diligentiam adhibebant; mūrōs 3. Sed Ianiculum oppidi mūrīs nondum (not

confirmabant.

yet) inclusum (inclosed)

erat; novum murum
Romānī obicere Etrus-
cīs 1
nōn poterant.
4. Postquam igitur Por-
sena Ianiculum cum
celeritate occupavit,
magnus timor Rōmānīs1
iniectus est. 5. Tan-
dem Etrusci ad pontem
accesserunt; hic pōns
ab Horatio defendē-
bātur; eius virtus Rō-
mānīs multum adiecit
animum.

B. 1. The three Romans were very brave; they dared to fight with

a great number of Etruscans.

Etruscan Gate at Volterra

2. Porsena's soldiers hurled

many weapons; Horatius was not disturbed, but dared to defend the bridge. 3. When the bridge fell (cecidit, fr. cado) into the river, Horatius threw himself forward into the water. 4. Horatius himself was not wounded, but his friend was pierced by an arrow. 5. At last the forces of Porsena were thrown back; Rome was saved.

253.

The enemy approach.

LATIN SELECTION

HORATIUS DEFENDS THE BRIDGE

1 Dative with the compound verb.

2 Cf. p. 5.

The Romans fight and flee.

Horatius and
his two com-
rades must
"keep the
bridge."

"Brave Horatius stands

alone."

The Romans cut down the

bridge. Horatius swims to

safety.

Suggested "Horatius."

rum, petiit; qui auxilium dedit et multōs mīlitēs contra (against) Rōmānōs dūxit et Ianiculum 2 occupavit.

Magno in periculo erat Roma. Agricolae cum līberīs in oppidum properāvērunt et mūrōs cōnfirmare contenderunt. Porsena ipse suōs dūxit et cum Rōmānīs proelium commisit. Rōmānī magna cum fortitudine pugnabant, sed tandem ad pontem fugiebant, ubi autem stabat Horatius.

Iam Porsena cum multis militibus ad pontem accedebat. Horatius tamen (nevertheless) manēbat et cum duobus sociis, quod reliqui Rōmānī magnō timōre iam discesserant, pontem contră tantam (so great) multitudinem defendere audēbat.

Postquam Romānī trāns flūmen fügērunt, pontem rescindere (to cut down) contenderunt — id enim Horatius iusserat. Tum Horatius sociōs dīmīsit et ipse sōlus mānsit.

Neque multo post magna pārs pontis in flumen cecidit (fell). Tum demum (at length) Horatius in fļūmine salutem petiit. Tēla multa Etrusci iēcērunt, ille tamen sine vulneribus trānāvit (swam across).

Reading: Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome,

1 Etruscus, -a, -um, Etruscan. Etruria is north of the Tiber. Cf. map facing p. 62.

2 Iāniculum, n., a hill across the Tiber from early Rome. Cf. map, p. 100.