tecting power' (Luke i. 69). Horns, in Daniel (vii. 7; viii. 20, 21, 24), denote kingdoms. That the horn was a sign of power and dignity appears from this cut, exhibiting the head of Jupiter Ammon.

The married women in Syria wear an ornament that seems peculiar to them, consisting of a horn from one to two feet in length, projecting from the upper part of the forehead. This ornament, confined strictly to the matrons, is made of tin or silver, according to the wealth of the wearer. It rests on a pad, and is never taken off, even at night. At a little distance, it gives a majestic character to the figure. A veil hangs gracefully from it, which can be gathered round the shoulders, and enshrines the wearer as in a tent.

HORSE (T.), is the rendering of the Hebrew soos, or sus, which has been thought to be connected with Susa, indicating that the Hebrews had their knowledge of horses from Persia. In the text of the Bible, however, it is Egypt which first presents the horse to our notice; for in Gen. xlvii. 17, we find the horse a part of the substance of the people. The Egyptian horse, as found on the monuments, is distinguished for its beautiful proportions, lightness, and strength. Indeed, the low lands of Egypt were more suitable for horses than the hills and rocks of Palestine. Yet the Canaanites had their cavalry, which they led against the Israelites (Josh. xi. 4). It was not till the time of David that cavalry formed a part of the Hebrew army (2 Sam. viii. 4), when horses, together with asses and mules, came to be used for riding by persons of distinction (xv. 1). With the increase of riches and luxury the use of horses, contrary to the Mosaic law (Deut. xvii. 16), became more prevalent, and Solomon traded in them with Egypt (1 Kings x. 28, 29), and held them in great numbers (iv. 26), his stalls being partly supplied by tribute paid in horses (x. 25). Following kings had their studs and their equipages (2 Kings ix. 33; xi. 16. Jer. xvii. 25), as well as war-chariots (1 Kings xxii. 4. See CART), which were much

needed in the constant wars with Syria (xx. 1). They were also kept by private persons (Amos iv. 10. Is. xxx. 10), and employed in part in treading out corn (Is. xxviii. 28).

The Eastern enemies of the Israelites made war on them with strong, well-organised cavalry (Is. v. 28. Jer. vi. 23; viii. 16), which made their kings look to Egypt for hired troops of horse, which was condemned as leading to dependence on an idolatrous people (Is. xxxi. 1; xxxvi. 9). The war-horse is forcibly described by Job xxxix. 19, seq. We use the version of Noyes: 'Hast thou given the horse strength?

Hast thou clothed his neck with thunder?
Hast thou taught him to bound like the locust?
How terrible the noise of his nostrils!

He paweth in the valley; he exulteth in his
strength,

And rusheth into the midst of arms.

He laugheth at fear; he trembleth not,
And turneth not back from the sword.
Against him rattleth the quiver,

The glittering spear, and the lance.
With rage and fury he devoureth the ground;
He standeth not still when the trumpet sound-
eth;

He saith among the trumpets, Aha! aha!
And snuffeth the battle afar off;

The thunder of the captains, and the shouting.'

In Canticles i. 9, the bride compares her lover to a company of horses in Pharaoh's chariots'-a figure which, to those that are unacquainted with the East, has something repulsive. But there the horse is a highlyvalued animal. The Arabs love their horses with extreme tenderness, and kiss them as they kiss their children. Arvieux relates a striking instance: 'An Arab, by name Ibrahim, had sold a mare of the noblest breed to a merchant of Marseilles who had settled at Ramah. Ibrahim often resorted to that town in order to visit this horse, which he loved extremely. I had the pleasure to see him often, from tenderness, break into tears when he kissed and stroked the animal. On his departure he threw his arms around its neck, kissed its eyes, and, retiring backwards, took his leave with the most tender expressions. The Egyptian horses, in consequence of their stateliness and beauty, are so prized that they are sent as presents of great value to the Sultan. Slender and delicate limbs, well-proportioned and graceful form, purity of blood, are by the Arabs sought for and valued alike in women and horses. It may be remarked that Theocritus, speaking of Helen's marriage with Menelaus, uses a comparison similar to that in Canticles:

'As before a chariot a Thessalian steed,

So does roseate Helen adorn Lacedemon.' An Oriental mounted on a fleet Arabian horse is always a picturesque and even noble object. The mane of their animals is left unpruned and flowing. Their long, bushy tails often sweep the ground; and when, in their rapid flight, the vast, loose robes of the rider, always gorgeous and gay, rise and float on the breeze behind him, they really

appear to be winged, and to fly through the air rather than to move upon the earth.

The Arab horse possesses qualities which are found united in no other. If in tolera

ble condition, he may be trusted on the worst roads, on mountain steeps, mountain passes, and along perilous precipices. His gentle and gallant spirit, hardiness, and intelligence, endear him to his owner. Indeed, the Arab horse is a part of the family. He will travel for many hours in succession without food, and be content at the end of his work with scanty fare.

White horses were used on great occasions, such as by generals in their triumphs (Rev. vi. 2). Riding on a royal horse of state (Esth. vi. 9) was a part of Haman's installation as grand vizier. Among other acts of idolatry, horses and chariots, after the manner of the Persians, were offered by the Israelites to the sun (2 Kings xxiii. 11).

Isaiah (v. 26, seq.), in a fine description of the Assyrian horses, says that their hoofs shall be counted like flint.' The present custom of shoeing horses with iron was unknown to the ancients. Hence strength and firmness of hoof were of great consequence, particularly in a country like Judah, where rocks abound, making the use of horses difficult and rare. Hence Amos (vi. 12) asks, 'Shall horses run upon the rock ? -a thing as improbable and nugatory as 'to plow there with oxen.' 'About Jerusalem, says Olin (ii. 221), 'a horse cannot often be put to a speed beyond a grave walk without some peril to the neck.'

In Ecclesiastes x. 7, we read,

'I have seen servants upon horses,

And princes walking as servants on the earth.'

To ride on horseback is in the East ac

counted an honour. The Orientals ride in a very stately manner. Grandeur and dignity are involved in this mode of transport. The great are commonly attended by slaves on foot; hence the incongruity to which the writer refers, namely, that slaves hold the place of their master, and the master is thrust down into the condition of his slaves.

Comp. 6; what is here complained of is threatened by our Lord as retributory (Matt.

xix. 30).

The horses supplied to travellers in Palestine are generally slender, active, and exceedingly hardy. They are usually fed only at night; commonly on barley or other grain, with straw; and occasionally, when there is a scanty herbage around the tent, they are suffered to crop it. Their gait is a fast walk, never a trot, for on the mountains the state of the roads renders this for the most part impossible. They are sure-footed and exceedingly sagacious in picking their way among the rocks. There is little difference in regard to this between horses and mules, which are also employed by travellers. These remarks apply only to horses kept for hire, and not to the sleek and well-fed animals (usually mares) of the skeikhs and wealthy persons, which, with equal hardiness, exhibit a wonderful degree of activity and fleetness.

people carried verdant branches. Hence it was borrowed, with the accompanying words, as a triumphal salutation to Jesus, for a moment recognised as the Messiah (Matt. xxi. 9, 15).

HOSEA (H. deliverer) stands in the En

C

glish Bible first of what are termed the minor prophets. Of his history nothing is known save that he was the son of Beeri (i. 1). The time, however, when he executed his prophetic commission is defined with some exactness, namely, in the days of Uzziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and of Jeroboam II., king of Israel. As this Jeroboam died cir. 784 A.C., and Hezekiah ascended the throne cir. 725 A.C., we have the interval, 59 years, for the period of his public ministry. Hosea was, therefore, contemporary with Isaiah, Micah, and Amos, like the last of whom, he directed his admonitory words chiefly to the ten tribes. It was a period of great religious, moral, and political corruption, in which the faithful performance of his duty must have exposed a prophet to great distress of mind and many outward perils. This duty, however, Hosea continued for an unusual length of time religiously to perform, warning (but in vain) the Israelites of their folly, danger, and coming ruin. The book may be divided into two unequal parts: I. 1-3, Hosea's symbolical connection with two females; II. 4-14, discourses of an admonitory character. Of this second division, we may notice, iv.-vi., accusations against Israel; vii.-ix., his punishment; x.-xiv., retrospect of earlier days, warnings, threatenings, and consolation. The instructive acts which the prophet performs at the beginning of the book, have more force than delicacy; but, on points of this kind, the modern taste is more fastidious, without perhaps being more pure. The relation which the prophet bears to the two women, represents that in which Jehovah stands to his idolatrous people in their two divisions of Judah and Israel. The names of the children born of this union are symbolical and predictive of the punishments which God was about to inflict on Lo-ammi, the Israelites, who were thus declared no longer to be his people, inasmuch as they had yielded to the seductions of idolatry. The figures here employed, and the complexion of the whole book, avouch its Hebrew character, assure us we are with it in the circle of Hebrew literature, declare in general the time of the composition, and so afford guarantees against our being misled by a fabricated work. And the dark picture drawn of the moral and religious degradation of the people convinces the reader of the reality of the events spoken of, and the simple and truthful honesty of the writer. An enemy might argue from details such as are here found, that the Mosaic religion proved powerless for good: a gross exaggeration, but the materials for which are supplied by Hebrew prophets, who would not have drawn the character of their fellowreligionists in colours so dark, and thus supplied adversaries with arms, had they not been impelled solely by a predominant

regard to truth, and a deep, unquenchable desire to rescue their country from its impending fate.

HOSEN, an obsolete plural (comp. ox, oxen) of the Saxon word 'hose,' signifying stocking, represents a Chaldee term which probably means the under garment, or species of shirt (Dan. iii. 21). See CLOTH.

HOSHEA (H. Saviour; A.M. 4822, A.C. 726, V. 739), the last ruler of the separate kingdom of Israel, who, forming a conspi racy, slew Pekah, the reigning sovereign, and usurped the throne which he disgraced less than his predecessor. Being tributary to Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, he endeavoured to throw off the yoke by putting himself under the shield of So, king of Egypt, but his hope failed him. The last hour of Israel was come. Shalmaneser imprisoned Hoshea, and carried his subjects into captivity. The unhappy monarch died in chains. Thus fell the throne of Jeroboam, after having stood about two centuries and a half. And thus ended the kingdom of Israel, 131 years before that of Judah, which ought to have taken warning by its disaster. The sacred historian, on mentioning this overthrow, speaks of the causes by which it was brought about, the chief of which was apostacy from God. The example of the iniquities which entailed ruin on Israel was set by its monarchs, for few, if any, nations ever had such a succession of wicked kings. The false and selfish policy of Jeroboam, who founded a system of worship rival to that at Jerusalem, and which led to the setting up of golden calves, and therein to gross idolatry, was followed by his successors, under whose influence the people became more and more corrupt, until they were overtaken by divine vengeance, and blotted out from the list of nations (2 Kings xv. 30; xvii.).

HOSPITALITY (L. hospes, 'a guest'), the entertainment of strangers with shelter and food, is a virtue called into play by human wants, by which the evils of a rude state of society were mitigated, and strong lasting feelings of a friendly nature were aroused and sustained. Among the pleasing and even poetic traits of the early ages was this, that he who had eaten in your tent or house became your friend, and as such was sacred in your eyes, being exempt from even the claims of revenge, and possessed of a right which he could transmit as an inheritance to his descendants. It was chiefly the fact that population in ancient times was congregated in certain great centres, being but thinly scattered over the face of the earth, while inns or places of public entertainment at first did not exist, and were afterwards rare, which made hospitality into a social virtue whose infraction was accounted a crime. The hospitality of Abraham offers a beautiful picture of patriarchal bounty and

simplicity (Genesis xviii. 1-8; xix. 1—3). That of Nahor merits attention (xxiv. 24, seq.). Other instances may be found in Exod. ii. 20. Joshua ii. 1. Judg. xix. 3, 9, 16-21. 1 Kings xvii. 10-17. Hospitality remained in honoured observance even when population became more numerous and better spread on the face of the earth, and is accordingly found exemplified in the writings of the New Testament, as in the case of Martha (Luke x. 38), Zaccheus (xix. 5, 6), and friends of the apostles, who, together with their master, mainly depended for their means of subsistence on the gratuitous supplies of attached disciples (Matthew x. 11. Luke iv. 38. Acts x. 6; xvi. 15; xviii. 3).

Among the gentler ordinances of the Mosaic law were those requiring kindness to strangers (Exodus xxii. 21. Lev. xix. 34). Love for strangers was expressly enjoined (Deut. x. 19), but in corrupt times strangers were nevertheless ill treated (Jer. vii. 6. Mal. iii. 5). Hospitality is enjoined immediately of God (Is. lviii. 7) in the New Testament (Romans xii. 13. Heb. xiii. 2), not merely towards strangers, but between friends (1 Pet. iv. 9. 1 Tim. v. 10. Gal. vi. 10). It finds a place among the qualities required in bishops (1 Tim. iii. 2), and is set among the highest virtues (Matt. x. 40–42; xxv. 35, 46).

The laws of hospitality are still religiously observed. In Syria at the present day, if you have no tent, and are not near a khan, enter a village, choose out the best house you see, and you will hardly fail to meet with an hospitable reception. Every man you meet, particularly in the country of the Druses, greets you in a friendly manner. Often, as travellers pass before a garden, the children run out to them with baskets of figs or grapes, pressing them to eat of the contents, but unwilling to accept any remuneration. When you enter a house you will be treated, perhaps, with excellent wine of a rich flavour, and a scent that verifies the justice of the prophet's simile (Hos. xiv. 7). At any rate, they will set before you such fare as they bave, and season it with a hearty welcome. They will assist you to prepare your coffee and to drink it, and will assign you a place where you may spread your carpet for repose. The evening is spent in pleasant discourse, introduced by the never-failing question-Shoo ishdeed andac? What is new with you? But this is never propounded till after the usual polite inquiries respecting your health, and whether your kief, your humour, is good. Even religious diversities only partially interfere with and qualify the

attentions of hospitality. The precept is well observed: 'The first law of hospitality is to refrain from asking a stranger from what region he comes, or in what faith he has been reared; but he must be asked, is he hungry? is he thirsty? is he clothed ?'

Robinson thus describes the reception he met with at Ramleh, in the house of an upright, wealthy Arab of the Greek church, named Abud Murkus. As himself and his eldest son were from home, the second son, a young man of eighteen or twenty years, did the honours of the house, and conducted us to an upper room,' a large airy hall, forming a sort of third story upon the flat roof of the house. As we entered, the mistress of the family came out of her apartment and welcomed us, but we saw no more of her afterwards. Sherbet was brought, which in this instance was lemonade, and then coffee. Our youthful host now proposed, in the genuine style of ancient hospitality,

This

that a servant should wash our feet. took me by surprise, for I was not aware that the custom still existed here. Nor does it indeed towards foreigners, though it is quite common among the natives. We gladly accepted the proposal, both for the sake of the refreshment and the Scriptural illustration. A female Nubian slave accordingly brought water, which she poured upon our feet over a large shallow basin of tinned copper, kneeling before us and rubbing our feet with her hands, and wiping them with a napkin. Several neighbours came in to learn the news, and carpets and mats were spread for the company in the open air, on the flat roof adjacent to the room we occupied. Here we revelled in the delightful coolness of the evening, after the sultry heat of the day.' Robinson, whose words we have just cited, had intended to leave the Louse at Ramleh without disturbing the family, as he rose for his journey so early as two in the morning; but as he descended the stairs, he found his host and his two sons waiting to see him off. 'Coffee was brought, and we at length bade farewell to our friends, not without respect and gratitude for their unaffected kindness and hospitality.'

HOST (L. hostis, an enemy '), is the rendering, in Exod. xiv. 4, of a Hebrew word which in 9 is translated army,' and so in many other instances. Another term, mahghaneh, is Englished by 'host' (Gen. xxxii. 2, mahanaim, that is two hosts), and 'bands' (7), also 'company' (8), as well as 'camp' (Ex. xiv. 20). A third word, tzahvah, rendered host' (Gen. ii. 1), and armies' (Ex. vi. 26), used of the Divine Being, 'Jehovah of Hosts' (Ps. xxiv. 10; comp. lxviii. 12), and of the host of heaven,' or stars (Neh. ix. 6. Dan. viii. 10).

HOSTAGES (L. hospes, 'a guest'), persons received and detained as security for the performance of certain conditions, is the rendering, in 2 Kings xiv. 14. 2 Chron. xxv. 24, of Hebrew words which literally mean 'children of pledges,' and thus explain themselves.

HOUGH (T. Saxon hof., Eng. hoof) is

the thigh of the hind leg of a beast, and 'to hough' is to cut or divide the muscle by which the hind leg is moved, 'to hamstring' (Josh. xi. 9).

HOUR (G.). In the earliest periods, the Hebrews as well as the Greeks divided the day into three portious, according to the three visible diversities of the sun-its rising, its mid-day altitude, its setting; hence morning, noon, and evening, which generally included night. This is the sole division of the day found in the Old Testament. Afterwards, the Jews and the Romans divided the day, that is, the interval between the rising and the setting of the sun, into four parts, each consisting of three hours. These hours, however, were not, as are ours, of equal length, sixty minutes; since they varied with the time. that elapsed between sunrise and sunset: accordingly, an hour with them was the twelfth part of the time during which the sun is above the horizon. As this time is greater in summer than in winter, their hours were in the former longer than in the latter. The first hour began at the rising of the sun, mid-day was the sixth, and the twelfth ended with the setting of the sun. The third hour divided the interval between sunrise and mid-day, the ninth between midday and sunset. It was in reference to this division that Jesus asked, 'Are there nct twelve hours in the day?' (John xi. 9) See DAY.

HOUSES (T). Human beings dwelt at first in caves, huts, and tents, which in warm climes afford a less insufficient shelter than they would do in cold and moist regions. At an early period houses were erected of such materials, whether of clay, brick, wood, or stone, as the country most readily supplied (Gen. iv. 17; xiii. 5). The houses of the Israelites were in all probability similar to those which are now seen in Palestine, and of course they varied in size and details according to men's condition in life and the progress of luxury (1 Kings vii. 2-6. Jer. xxii. 14). They were either detached or joined together, and sometimes had as many as three stories (Acts xx. 9). In all their varieties, regard was paid to the peculiarities of climate, which in Judea allows men to live much out of doors, and makes an open space or court within the house pleasant and desirable. Hence, for the houses of persons of substance, preference was given to the quadrangle which enclosed a court yard, having often in the midst a fountain, or receptacle of water (2 Sam. xvii. 18. Matthew xxvi. 69, for 'in the palace,' read, probably, in the court yard'), and the interior of which was furnished with colonnades or cloisters, galleries, baths (2 Samuel xi. 2), trees, and plants. In this large paved and decorated court strangers were received and entertainments given. Comp. Esther i. 5, and see GUESTCHAMBER. This court was

entered by a gate or door formed in the middle of the front of the quadrangle. Beyond the court, and on the opposite side, was the harem or women's apartments, which were sometimes much decorated, and always guarded against strangers and every male except the master of the family. The court itself thus formed the middle of the house, and is intended, in Luke v. 19, by the words into the midst.' Over this open court, in order to shelter it from the burning sun, a curtain or awning was extended which could easily be withdrawn, so as to allow any thing to be lowered from the roof into the yard, which explains the proceeding in the passage last referred to. Comp. Mark ii. 4. The tops or roofs of these sides of the quadrangle were flat, having a low breast-work for protection. The roofs served for social and religious purposes. Here the family met to enjoy the cool of the day. Here members of it slept. Here worship was paid. With the roof and with the court yard were connected rooms of various sizes and for various purposes, made in the sides or wings of the quadrangular building. Of these apartments we mention the upper room,' a private apartment or closet (1 Kings xvii. 19. Acts ix. 37, 39), used especially for prayer (2 Kings xxiii. 12. Acts i. 13; xx. 8) and for sickness (Joseph. Antiq. xviii. 8, 2). From this 'upper room' were often two means of egress, one leading into the house, the other immediately into the street. Mansions and palaces had an outer court or porch (Judg. iii. 23. Jer. xxxii. 2. Mark xiv. 68. John xviii. 16), which was used as an ante-room, and from which, by means of stairs, sometimes winding stairs,' (1 Kings vi. 8), often made of costly wood (2 Chron. ix. 11), they went to the galleries and roof. A doorway led from the outer into the inner court. Into it looked the windows of the apartments, for on the outside there were in general only a few openings. The exterior was neglected for the interior, on which much care was sometimes bestowed (1 Kings vi. 15; xxii. 39. Jer. xxii. 14. Amos iii. 15). The doors moved on pins (Prov. xxvi. 14. 1 Kings vii. 50), and by handles, which, as a mark of love, were occasionally sprinkled with aromatic waters (Cant. v. 5), being fastened by a bolt within (Judg. iii. 25. Luke xi. 7).

In houses of eminent persons were male or female door-keepers (John xviii. 16. Acts xii. 13), and on the door-posts and gateways were written portions of the law. Eminent Hebrews possessed summer and winter houses (Amos iii. 15). The latter were warmed by braziers (Jer. xxxvi. 22). What in primitive times was judged indispensable as furniture, may be seen in 2 Kings iv. 10. Job xviii. 6. Besides, this luxury demanded sofas and couches richly adorned (Ezekiel xxiii. 41. Amos vi. 4. Prov. vii. 16).

For cement in building were used lime