and government is reserved to the clergy. The Church of Rome, the Greek Church and the Anglican Church have hierarchical governments.

་

3. Democracies.-A Democracy is a government in which all the members of the state possess an equal share of the sovereignty. There are two general divisions of this class of government: Pure Democracies, and Representative Democracies or Republics.

PURE DEMOCRACY.-A Pure Democracy is one in which the government is carried on directly by all the members of a community. It is only in states of small extent that this form can exist, as it would be impossible, in a large state, for its thousands of inhabitants to meet together and decide all questions of government. At the present day this form is found only among small savage tribes.

EXAMPLES. Such a government is carried on as follows: The tribe meets in one assembly, the affairs of the community are discussed, the action to be taken is determined upon, and one or more are appointed to execute the will of the tribe, and after this has been done the authority of those appointed to act for the tribe ceases. A remnant of this form of democracy is still to be found in the town meeting, at which every member of the town is entitled to be present and express his opinion, and the questions of town government are decided by a vote of all the electors present.

REPUBLIC.-A Representative Democracy, or, as it is more commonly called, a Republic or Commonwealth, is one in which the government is delegated to a body of men elected from time to time by the citizens, as the members of the state are called, who have an equal voice in selecting those who are to act for all in the government.

Government in a Republic. In a republic the three functions of government are usually administered by separate branches the Legislative, by Representatives elected by the people; the Judicial, by men, termed Judges or Justices, elected by the people or appointed by the Executive Branch of the government; and the Executive, by a President elected by the people or chosen by their representatives. In most republics the Executive has a limited right, called the right of veto, to disapprove the acts of the Legislature; the Judiciary usually determines whether the acts of the Legislature and Executive comply with the principles declared by the constitution; and the Legislature has power to remove the Executive and the Judiciary in case they violate the constitution. The three branches, therefore, though separate, are not absolute in the exercise of their functions, but are responsible to some other branch of the government.

EXAMPLES.-France is an example of a Republic. There is a single sovereignty, which rests in all the people. The three branches of government are distinct. The legislative is elected by the people, and divided into two houses, called a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies. The Republic is divided into Departments, (each) administered by a prefect, who is nominated by the central government, and the Departments are subdivided into Arrondissements, Cantons and Communes. The judges of the different courts are appointed by the President.

Chile is another example of a Republic with a single sovereignty. It also has a President, a Senate and a Chamber of Deputies elected by the people. For purposes of administration the Republic is divided into Provinces, and these into Departments, whose official heads are appointed by the central government, as are also the judiciary.

Ecuador and Colombia are other instances of Single Republics.

CONFEDERATED OR FEDERAL GOVERNMENTS. Classification.-Confederated or Federal Governments, being based upon an agreement between sovereign and independent states, adopt the character of the governments of these states. Confederacies may be divided into two classes: Monarchical Confederacies and Republican Confederacies.

1. MONARCHICAL CONFEDERACIES.-A Monarchical Confederacy is one composed of two or more monarchies, and necessarily assumes the form of a limited monarchy, as the sovereign power is confined to such powers as are surrendered to it by the individual states which form the confederacy.

EXAMPLES.—The German Empire is a Monarchical Confederacy, composed of four kingdoms, six grand duchies, five duchies, seven principalities and three free towns. By its constitution the sovereignty, for certain purposes, is given to two distinct branches, the executive and the legislative. The former is in the person of a President, with the title of the German Emperor, who is by the constitution the hereditary king of Prussia, the largest and most influential state of the Confederacy. The legislative authority is in the Bundesrath, or Federal Council, appointed by the governments of the individual states, and the Reichstag, or Diet, elected by the people. There is one federal court for hearing appeals, whose judges are appointed by the Emperor. All other courts are directly under the appointment and control of the different monarchies which form the Confederacy. Each state has also its own government, with an hereditary monarch at its head, and is supreme in all matters not surrendered to the Imperial Government by the constitution.

Austria-Hungary is also a Monarchical Confederacy, composed of the Empire of Austria and the Kingdom of Hungary, over which there is a common monarch with the titles of Kaiser of Austria and King of Hungary. To the Federal Government is

surrendered the charge of foreign, military and naval affairs, finance, etc., while in all other matters the governments of the two monarchies are separate, except that the executive authority is in the one ruler. In this it differs from the German Empire, in which each state has its own monarch. Austria and Hungary are both limited monarchies, with legislative assemblies of their own. The federal legislation is by sixty delegates from each monarchy, chosen by their respective assemblies from their own members. These Delegations, as they are called, meet separately, once a year, and propose federal laws, which are submitted to the Delegation from the other monarchy. If a law is not agreed to after three interchanges of the views of each Delegation, then the one hundred and twenty delegates meet in one body and decide it. The famous Iroquois Confederacy, or the Confederacy of the Six Nations, is another example of a Monarchical Confederacy. It was composed of six Indian tribes whose villages extended across the central part of what is now New York State. Each tribe was under the government of hereditary sachems, but the Confederacy, in matters relating to the welfare of all the tribes, was governed by a grand council of fifty sachems, any of whom could demand a meeting of the council. In military affairs, however, two hereditary chiefs of the Seneca tribe commanded the warriors of the Confederacy.

2. REPUBLICAN CONFEDERACIES.-A Republican Confederacy is governed in the same general way as a single republic, except that the sovereignty of the federal government is limited to those matters which affect the gen eral welfare of all the states which form the confederacy, and which have been delegated to it by the states.

EXAMPLES.-The Swiss Confederation is a Confederacy of twenty-two separate republics, called Cantons. By its constitu tion the legislative and executive authority of the Confederation is in a Federal Assembly composed of two houses, the State Council and the National Council. The former has forty-four members, two from each Canton, and the latter consists of representatives elected by the people, one representative for every

20,000 inhabitants. The executive authority is delegated by the Federal Assembly to a Federal Council of seven members elected for three years. The President and Vice-President of this Council are selected each year by the Federal Assembly, and no member of the Council can be President two years in succession. It is the duty of the Federal Council to propose laws and to execute them when passed by the two houses. The Federal Council may, when it desires, and must, when petitioned by 30,000 citizens, submit a law to all the people, who may, by vote, adopt, amend or reject it. This principle of submission to the people is called the referendum and is a modified form of Pure Democracy. The act of petitioning by the people for a referendum is termed initiation. There is only one federal court, whose jurisdiction is limited. Each Canton has its own judges; and, in all matters not delegated to the Federal Government by the constitution, it is supreme and has its own independent, republican government. The United States has a government of this class, although in some particulars it possesses the character of a single republic. This likeness and difference will be shown when this government is studied more in detail.

The Federal Principle. The principle which underlies this form of government is that each state of the union possesses the sovereignty in all matters which affect itself alone, while in all matters which relate to two or more of the states, or which have to do with foreign nations, the sovereign power is in the Federal Government.