or

ment. So some ugly modern shed used by excavators receives the same careful scrutiny as the great theater, or the uncovered foundations of Zeus' temple; it is your task to center interest on the really valuable parts of the picture without quenching the youngsters' ardor for exploration by slighting their discoveries. A third difficulty you will meet is due to the fact that many members of your class cannot readily interpret pictures-especially lantern pictures. "Are those mountains or clouds?" "Where is the river?" "What is that white streak over there?" "Is that land "Is that land or water?" Questions such as these continually surprise you until, at last, you grow wary and begin to ask them yourself, instead of taking it for granted that the picture is understood. I wonder whether this failure to interpret is due to the fact that the young people have seen so little of nature, or to the lack of color in the pictures?

In order to get the best results from your picture work. some slight use should be made of it afterward. This may be done by an informal review, a simple written test or a paper. It should be understood at the outset of the lesson that some returns will be required; this really adds zest to the lesson, for pupils, like teachers, study more eagerly if they see some immediate use they can make of their knowledge. And the ultimate result? This is hard to measure, for picture work, like most of our teaching, is more or less a casting of our bread upon the waters; but curiously enough, even the leanest and most unpromising fish in the class, whom you could hardly catch nibbling, will often return to you after many days, perhaps from a trip to Europe, or from a university course, confessing that he got his first taste for bread and his first turn toward historical corpulency from the illustrative material used in your class.

Questions upon Pictures

The following illustrations and quotations from Professor F. M. Fling's "Source Book of Greek History," (D. C. Heath & Company, $1.00), will show how much can be gained from the most simple illustrations in the text-book, if the picture is correctly estimated by the teacher.

Fig. 1. "Women at the Fountain." British Museum. (From a photograph.) Black-figured Volcantian hydria (water-jar) from Athens. Sixth century B.C. (Source Book, p. 173, 357.)

Questions: 1. What can you learn about Greek life from the group on this vase? 2. Compare the dresses of the women in this vase with the dress of the women in Figure 1. 3. Why do they differ? 4. Describe the grouping of the figures. 5. Why does the subject lend itself naturally to vase decoration? 6. Where have you seen a design with a figure similar to that in the lower border? Fig. 2. "Games." Facing page 212.

(From photo

179

The

graphs.) These designs were taken from Greek vases. upper group is from a red-figured hydria of the early fifth century. The men are "entering for the horse and chariot races." The original is in Munich. The middle group is from a red-figured cylix (drinking cup, with shallow bowl. two handles and base) of the early fifth century. The original is in the Edward Jekyll collection. The men on the left are wrestling, those on the right are marking out a course. The lower group, "racing in armor," is from a red-figured cylix in Berlin. red-figured cylix in Berlin. (Source Book, p. 212, 358.) Questions: 1. What can you learn about Greek games

3.

water

from these vase decorations? 2. About Greek dress? Trace the groups on white paper, paint the figures (the white portions) terra-cotta, the background black, with colors. After the paint has dried, go over the black background with shellac. 4. How many horses are attached to the chariot? 5. Why is the driver represented as entering the chariot instead of standing in it? 6. Notice the skill with which the figures are grouped on the middle and lower vases and the varieties of graceful attitudes introduced. On the middle vase, the umpire and the wrestlers form one group, the youth on the right another, but the two figures on the right are turned toward the centre, and the umpire, or central figure, seems to bind the two groups together. Notice the grace in the pose of the figures. The manner in which the figures in the lower group are arranged is even more interesting. The interlacing of legs and arms not only gives the impression of rapid movement, but produces unity in the group. The central figure, with right arm extended. struggles to overtake the leader, meanwhile glancing over his shoulder at the man behind him. It is a lively portrayal

of a race.

This is not an account of how illustrative material is used in the class room. Not being a teacher, I must limit myself in speaking of methods of use to very general sug gestions. In this article I try to tell briefly how the illustrative material of a certain public library, that of Newark, is arranged; how it is kept; how it was gathered; what it includes and what ground it covers; with general suggestions for its use in history.

All pictures less than 12"x16" in size are mounted, one to a sheet, on pieces 13"x17", of light weight pulp board, a very inexpensive material of good color and surface. The subject of each picture is marked in plain letters on the upper left corner of the mount to which it is attached. The mounts thus labelled stand upright in boxes in the alphabetical order of the subjects written upon them, like cards in a card catalogue. The boxes are of wood, with covers of heavy cardboard. They stand on bases in long rows. The inside dimensions are 131⁄2"x24"x18" high. 108 of them hold a total of about 22,000 mounted pictures and 75,000 clipped and unclassified but unmounted ones in manila wrappers.

Any carpenter can make these boxes, or a small collection mounted as described can quite conveniently lie upon a shelf in wrappers of manila paper, easily taken down and looked over. The essential point is that all mounts be of the same size, and that every mount carry one picture only.

The unmounted pictures are those which have been saved, in pulling apart magazines and books, but have not yet been called for sufficiently to warrant their being mounted. The wrappers are simply sheets of manila paper, folded until they are the size of the mounts above described, 13"x17". Loose pictures are laid within and the subject which they cover is written in the upper left corner of the folded wrapper.

The wrappers are kept in the same alphabetical series with the mounted pictures; so that, for example, 40 mounts bearing pictures illustrating the life and times of Henry VIII may have immediately following them manila wrappers containing 100 more pictures on the same subject as yet unmounted.

The advantages of the box and the vertical position are economy of space and ease of examination. The method of keeping pictures which we employ could be adopted on a small scale in a high school or in a small library. For example: Two boxes, each 3 feet long, 18" high and 11" wide, inside dimensions, can stand on one end of an ordinary table, and the two will hold about 1,000 mounted pictures.

The Newark collection covers a very wide range. It has been about eight years in process of making. In the beginning it in

cluded little more than the larger pictures taken from weekly illustrated journals, from monthly magazines and from discarded books. At first it was used chiefly by women's clubs. As it enlarged in quantity and broadened its scope to include designs, architectural pictures and other things, it came to be used more and more by the general public. Later its use by teachers was greatly enlarged until to-day it is perhaps used by them more than by any other class of borrowers. As its use extended the sources of supply were also broadened. Second-hand sets of art journals and fine art books, subscription publications and similar things, especially those slightly incomplete, were bought and pulled to pieces. Books of designs and decorations were treated in the same way. Inexpensive woodcuts and halftones in such collections as Harper's Black and White, and the Perry pictures were bought in quantities. Illustrated journals of all kinds taken by the library and not bound, after they had served their use in the reading room, were carefully looked over. Architectural journals, illustrated biographies and histories and many other things served to swell the lot.

Naturally as we have gone on and increased the size of the collection we have improved it in character. We reject to-day many pictures because they are too small or too indistinct or manifestly misleading, which, in the beginning of the collection, we would have saved and found useful.

As already indicated. these pictures are classified by subjects. There is no card index to them, for they index themselves. The classes stand in alphabetical order. The classification is, of course, constantly changing as the collection expands, and as demands for new things arise. A few of the several hundred classes under which the collection is arranged illustrate its scope:

to teachers of history. As may be supposed, the pictures as a whole are used to illus trate not only lessons in history, but also lessons in biography, nature study, geography, literature and other subjects. They are used in the lower grades for subjects of compositions and as texts for stories. A great many of them are excellent reproductions of works of art: buildings, sculptures, paintings, etc., and these, of course, are used in art studies, not only in schools, but by the public generally.

Within recent years a very few historic pictures have been reproduced for school use in this country. England has done a little more on this line; France perhaps more than England. Meanwhile, in Germany the growth of the publication of pictures for school and the development of their use has exceeded the like growth and development in all other countries combined.

Every teacher of history, especially every teacher of history in a high school should secure and become familiar with the contents of the great catalogue of German pedagogic material. This catalogue, called Bibliotheca Paedigogica, forms a book which with its supplement, has more than 600 closely printed pages, with hundreds of illustrations. It lists not only the textbooks used in German schools and colleges, but all allied material for teaching also, including chemical, and physical apparatus. and pictures on hundreds of subjects, on every topic, one may almost say, found in a school curriculum. Fortunately, moreover, the character of much of the material aside from books is suggested by illustrations. These illustrations give an excellent idea of the pictorial material which the history teacher may secure for his school, or. through his local public library, for lending to his school.

They are largely lithographs, some black and white, but chiefly in color. They range in size from 5"x8" to 36"x48". They cover not only geography and almost every branch of science, but also and more especially biography and history. They include historic buildings, historic events, street scenes in cities, ancient and modern, costumes, portraits, etc., etc.

Of this German educational picture material the Newark library has collected about 500 items. Each picture is mounted on heavy cardboard and bound with black cloth, and so treated that it may be easily hung in a class room. Like those in the "picture collection " proper, they are lent on application.

Although the English publications in this line are not equal to the German in quantity and quality, some of them are excellent. The library has acquired some of the best of them.

It should be noted that all these litbo

graphs, both English and German, are quite inexpensive, the price running from 25 to 75 cents. A school or a library can import them duty free. It seems not to the credit of American educational workers that this material, especially that from Germany, is not only not used in this country; but seems generally not even to be known.

A rather recent development in the way of illustrative educational material is found in maps and charts. These are of many sizes and styles and include not only inexpensive modern political maps; but historical ones as well, plans of ancient cities, maps showing the development of empires, etc., etc. Of these the library has made quite a large collection, all mounted like the lithographs.

To suggest how all this illustrative material may be used in the teaching of history and allied subjects let me describe briefly a few typical groups.

Thackeray. This group includes 87 items; of these 14 are portraits of Thackeray himself; 20 are portraits of friends, acquaintances and eminent men of his time; 34 are scenes or characters in Thackeray's novels; 9 are reproductions of Thackeray's own drawings or of his own handwriting, and 10

are miscellaneous; making a total such as can be found in no one volume. Many of the pictures are quite large and a few of them quite rare.

Cromwell. This particular group includes 17 portraits of Cromwell.

England, History: Anglo-Saxon period: Large wall pictures, 10.

Small pictures: Life and customs, 20; costume, 10; street scenes, 8; Saxon ships, 5; portraits, 20; Saxon houses, interiors, etc., 7.

England, History: Queen Anne:
Large wall pictures, 5.

Small pictures: Portraits and houses of prominent people of the time, 25; furniture, 10; costume, 6; architecture, 8; life and customs, 15; incidents, 15; castles, palaces, 10; portraits of artists with illustrations of their work, 16.

France, History: Louis XIV:

Portraits, 15; Versailles and other buildings, 10; furniture, 7; interiors, 6; costume, 5; decoration and ornament, 8; architecture, 5; incidents, 4; court life, 4.

Many of the illustrations in the picture collection proper are large enough to be seen well when hung upon the wall. In

many cases, however, a teacher takes a group of pictures illustrating a certain period of history, or the life of a certain individual, or the characteristics of a certain country, or the costumes and customs of a certain epoch, and, instead of hanging them on the wall, passes them from hand to hand about the class, or posts them where the class can consult them between recitations.

The lithographs illustrating, as already stated, persons, historical scenes, buildings,. castles, fortifications, etc., are too large to pass from hand to hand but can be seen well at a distance. These are usually hung on a class room hall.

About the help which this material can give to the teacher of history, I can say little. Our experience indicates, however, that all teachers who try it find it exceeding useful. As with other departures from the ordinary routine, it is only the energetic and ambitious instructor who will trouble himself with the burden of learning how to secure a new tool, or how to use it. It seems that those teachers who impose on themselves the labor of becoming acquainted with the possibilities of illustrative material in history teaching, find the results fully compensate for the efforts made.

Through the courtesy of the Macmillan Co., publishers, the writer has had the opportunity of inspecting the proof sheets of the Report of the Committee of Five of the American Historical Association upon the Study of History in Secondary Schools. The committee was appointed by the Council of the American Historical Association at the Madison meeting in 1907, and was composed of Professor Andrew C. McLaughlin, Chairman; Professor Charles H. Haskins, Professor James H. Robinson, Professor Charles W. Mann, and Doctor James Sullivan. Mr. Mann, who had given much attention to the problems before the committee, died in the spring of 1909.

The report is a comparatively brief document, comprising, with a short introduction, seventy-two pages, and treats the subject of the teaching of history in a more general way than did the Report of the Committee of Seven. A criticism of the report would not be in place at the present time, and indeed is not needed. What teachers of history wish is a knowledge of the recommendations of the committee. Accordingly an analysis of the report is given below.

There are twelve divisions of the report. These are summarized in the order in which they occur in the original.

I.

The report first takes up the relation of the Committee of Five to the Committee of

Seven, stating that two persons were members of both committees, but also asserting that they have made a new study of the conditions in the schools, and have entered once again into a careful consideration of the history curriculum; yet the Report of the Committee of Seven was necessarily the starting point for the new committee, as the latter had been appointed to determine what modifications, if any, were needed in the recommendations of the earlier committee. Consequently the present report not only contains recommendations for change, but also calls attention to those parts of the work of the preceding committee which have been most helpful and useful.

II.

Attention is next called to the position occupied by the Report of the Committee of Seven, particularly to the success of the report in judging the general situation and in recommending steps that the schools were prepared to take. From one side of the continent to the other, courses were fashioned with deference to the report of the committee. It affected not only the curriculum but also the method, and even the aims of history teaching, and its natural result has been to bring about an approximate uniformity in the history curricula in the schools throughout the country.

III.

The committee next considers the present situation of history teaching. The commit

tee itself had been appointed as the result of a petition from the Head Masters' Association, proposing certain changes in the Report of the Committee of Seven. Before considering or adopting the proposed changes the committee considered anew the whole subject. It sent circulars of inquiry to history teachers in all sections of the country, it discussed secondary school curricula at meetings of the American Historical Association and of local history teachers' associations. As a result of these investigations, certain conditions were evi

dent.

(1) Although the recommendations of the Committee of Seven in favor of a four years' high school course in history were sharply criticised ten years ago, yet, as a matter of fact, about one-half of the ninety schools, replying to the committee's inquiry, reported that they were giving four years or more to history. The committee accordingly expresses its opinion that four years of history are needed and should be offered where conditions permit.

(2) While it is not easy to ascertain just how far school curricula have been shaped in accordance with the Report of the Committee of Seven, the investigation shows that many school programmes consciously or unconsciously have been brought into accord with its recommendations. In one case, that of abandoning the single year general history course and split

sev

ting up the work into blocks of
eral periods, extending over several years,
the recommendations of the committee
have received almost universal applica
tion.

(3) It was difficult to determine the sentiment of teachers concerning the field of Ancient history. Conditions in the western schools differ from those prevailing in eastern schools, preparing students for colexaminations. lege entrance In general however, the committee felt that the majority of teachers are not discontented with the length of the Ancient history field, and that the inclusion of Oriental history and of the period down to 800 A. D. was not a mistake.

(4) On the subject of Medieval and Modern history there was a distinct majority of schools desirous of emphasizing Modern history. Sixty-four schools out of ninetyseven were in favor of placing more emphasis on the modern period.

(5) The relation between United States history and Civil Government and the extent to which government could be taught in direct connection with history was one of the topics investigated by the committee and one which showed marked differences of opinion. The committee had difficulty in making an analysis of the answers upon this subject, as there were not only two extreme forms of opinion, but gradations between these two. The analysis appeared to show that forty-one schools favored teaching the two subjects together in a course called American history and Civil Government, thirty-two schools preferred separate courses, and twenty-three partly followed the plan of teaching the two together. The committee thought that the need was not so much for regulating divisions, or method, as for sufficient time to do both subjects profitably.

(6) Inquiry whether the Committee of Seven had laid undue stress upon comprehensive and generalized knowledge and unduly neglected matters specific and detailed, produced answers clearly in favor of the report, only eleven thought that the comImittee had laid too much stress on comprehensive and generalized knowledge, sixty-six did not think so, and nineteen were noncommittal.

(7) The investigation showed that there was a wide use of illustrative material in the history class, and an earnest desire to use as much as could profitably be used. and a sense of the value of source material as illustrative material.

IV.

"The in most important factor the school room is not the curricula, the text, or not even the method, but the teacher." This sentence introduces the next topic of the committee: the teacher and the material for his use. The committee strongly asserts the need of better prepared teachers, and urges that superintendents and school trus

tees should give to teachers sufficient time to prepare their lessons and to seek out illustrative material.

V.

The division of the world's history into periods to be studied through three or four years of the high school course as recommended by the Committee of Seven in place of the old courses in general history, is upheld by the new report. Even if it were possible, says the Committee of Five. for exceptionally able teachers under advantageous circumstances to give an adequate view of the world's history in a single year, yet the result would be secured at the expense of something more valuable,-training and insight and comprehension.

On the other hand, the new committee does not agree with those teachers who believe the periods suggested by the Committee of Seven are too extensive to be covered in one year. The trouble with teachers urging such objections lies in their trying to cover the whole range of history with a layer of information of uniform thickness. They should, by wise omissions and clever condensations in some portions of the field, give time to plough deeper in other places. Such a process of omission and condensation, of emphasis and clarification is a process that tries the teacher's soul, but it is the essential element of good teaching.

In

What shall be done in cases where only three years can be given to the study of history? The simplest solution is to omit altogether one block of history, and for inexperienced teachers it may be the wisest course. But the committee thinks that it is possible to give the substance of the world's history in a three-year course. such a three-year course American history cannot be omitted, as its lessons are too immediate. If Ancient history be omitted from the formal plan, at least of general survey ancient civilization should be given at the opening of the course in Medieval history. If Ancient history be included, followed by European history, then the medieval period should be treated only in an introductory fashion, and time be gained to include the salient facts of English history in the European field. If, finally, the combination be Ancient history and English history, then the chief phases of European history should be brought out in connection with English history.

a

was already full and nothing more should be added, the committee urge a radical revision of the entire subject-matter of Ancient history. Its content, shaped by tradition, and filled with constitutional and military details, should be reconstructed. For instance, in Athenian history the early development should be disregarded and the effort concentrated upon the essential workings of Athenian democracy in the Periclean age. In Roman history the study should begin where our authentic sources begin, that is, at the close of the fourth cen tury, B.C., and no attempt should be made to reconstruct the institutions of the regal period, or the supposed struggle between the plebeians and patricians. The war with Pyrrhus and the Punic Wars should be treated as pieces of Mediterranean history rather than of local Italian history. The legends of early Rome, if introduced at all, should be used as illustrating the character and ideals of the Romans.

By such a process of selection time can be found for the earlier and later periods of Ancient history; "and no course on Ancient history, however elementary, ought to omit some reference to the Middle Ages which come after, as well as to the Oriental na tions which went before." Particularly is. it important to show the connection be tween ancient and modern times in the transitional centuries of the Roman Em pire. The period between Constantine and Charlemagne, should be studied both in the course on Ancient history and in that on Medieval and Modern history; in the first case the emphasis being put upon the Roman elements, and in the other upon the Medieval and German elements.

But are first-year high school pupils too immature for the study of Ancient history? Not if Ancient history is made simpler and less abstract; not if more attention is paid to great men, and less to the history of institutions; not if meaningless wars and constitutional details are omitted and time thereby gained for easy, familiar talks upon the great deeds and achievements of antiquity. Colleges, furthermore, should not require in their examinations, that the work in all subjects be of a character only possi ble in the higher years of the course, or that necessitates a cramming process in the fourth year.

VII.

Following up the last thought, the report next considers "mere memory work, a form of history teaching which, if adopted. would leave slight argument in favor of the retention of history in the curriculum. The pupils should, of course, be accurate, pains taking, and thorough; learning well a rea sonable amount from the text; but also they should learn how to use books and how to read them, how to think upon historical facts, and perhaps even to see the relation between evidence and historical statement. If a pupil can be trained to think, and not merely learn by rote, in physics, English,

and geometry, he should be able to think in history without peril of losing hold on truth or of gaining a love for indistinctness and uncertainty.

..

If pupils entering college have a fondness for vague misinformation this surely cannot be attributed to the teacher's endeavor to stimulate his pupils to read, or to incite them to think-unless in his enthusiasm he forget the danger of discussion without knowledge. It is all a matter of On good judgment and good teaching. either side there is difficulty and danger; on the one side, slavish adherence to a text and the loss of interest and training; on the other, distraction, incoherence, vague uncertainty, and possibly ignorant enthusiasm. The teacher of history has an incomparably difficult task; but we believe that a reasonable effort should be made to get the best results by avoiding both of the extremes."

Even when there is a paucity of material outside the text-book or little time for collateral reading, yet the teacher may in many ways add to the value of history class work. Oral and written exercises upon material from different parts of the text, or facts studied at different times can be made to supplement the text-books. Comparisons of historical personages and of political movements, or analyses of processes of development will encourage frequent reviews and give practice in using knowledge which has been gained. While therefore, the pupil should get more out of his study of history than the memory of a certain modicum of facts, which, when examination comes, he can faithfully reproduce; yet, on the other hand, he should be "taught to know clearly, strongly, and well the essential facts of history."

VIII.

Next the committee discusses the much vexed question of the relation of the study of government to the study of American history. Referring in a kindly way to the report of the committee of the Political Science Association which strongly opposed the combination of the two subjects, the committee quotes at length from certain sections in the report of the Committee of Seven which have frequently been misconstrued. Stating its own opinion, the committee says, we do not think that the two subjects, despite their interdependence, should be so taught as to crowd out govern. ment or give insufficient time for its proper study. the schools have the clear duty of giving full instruction on the essentials of American government and practical politics." Yet to separate the workings of political institutions through the decades of the last century from the institutions we have to-day, would be entirely without justification, and worse than profitless. Much of our national constitutional system can be effectively presented by a proper and wise correlation between American history and actual institutions.

But a satisfactory knowledge of state and local government and of party organization cannot be gained from the study of American history alone. Such subjects require separate treatment, which, from the daily value of the subjects, should not be hurried or vague.

The real need is for more time; if that could be gained the subjects should be taught in separate courses, but so taught as to take advantage of relationships and School interdependence. administrators should give these subjects the time they need in the school curriculum, and if shearing and clipping must be done somewhere, let the operation be applied to subjects that are not the best and most immediate subjects for preparing boys and girls for citizenship."

Facing the actual conditions, however, the committee recommends that the pressure upon American history in the fourth year be lightened by dealing with Colonial history in connection with English and modern European history. Two-fifths of the time in the fourth year should be devoted to separate work in government and threefifths to the course in history, the two subjects being continued throughout the year.

IX.

The committee noticed a growing interest in the study of modern history, and expressed its hearty approval of this feeling.

66

Why should we know of Frederick Barbarossa, or Innocent III, and be ignorant of their great successors? Surely Pitt and Palmerston and Gladstone are more significant to us than are Athelstane or Thomas à Becket."

To meet this need the committee does not recommend an immediate and universal rearrangement of courses. While an emphasis upon modern history, and a corresponding rearrangement of courses is desir able, the committee considers such a radical rearrangement a serious matter not to be entered upon except with a full understanding of what the change involves. To obtain the greater amount of time necessary for modern history the committee suggests either the abridgement of the medieval period in European and English history,-and the use again of the remedy of condensation and omission; or the establishment of a new course in modern history.

and something of the Colonial history of America.

C. Modern European history, including introductory matter upon later medieval institutions and a suitable treatment of

English history from 1760.

D. American history and government, with two-fifths of the time throughout the year devoted to the separate treatment of government.

XI.

The committee believes the time has come when many schools can introduce the requirement of three years of history from every pupil, and that, of the sixteen or sev enteen units offered in the ordinary course, three shall be taken in history. This sug gestion does not come from a desire to increase the college entrance work in history. but rather to provide for those leaving school at the end of the high school course a knowledge of history which will fit them for their work in society and give them a basis for satisfaction in the intellectual life.

XII.

In schools giving commercial, technical and industrial education, the committee recommends that courses in modern history and in American history and government be given. While economies and commercial geography may be correlated with such courses, and while some industrial history may be introduced, yet these two courses in history should be given from the histori cal viewpoint. It is not unlikely that his tory will be the only, or almost the only, non-technical, non-occupational study of fered in such schools.

[The Study of History in Secondary Schools. Report to the American Historical Association by a Committee of Five. New York. 1911. The Macmillan Co. pp. 72. Price not stated.]

Frontispiece

The Greek vases shown on the first page of this issue have been added recently to the collections of the Metropolitan Museum, New York, and they are here reproduced through the kindness of the authorities of the Museum.

The tall vase (Fig. 2) is a white Athenian Lekythos of the period 465-460 B.C. The figure is that of an Amazon throwing a stone from a sling. She wears high shoes. and a short chiton, over which an animal's skin is worn like a breast-plate.

The two smaller vases (Figs. 1. 3) are wide-mouthed Amphorae, with vertical handles in the Attic geometric style. This is a post-Mycenean product which probably took the place of the Mycenean ware. Today it is called Dipylon ware, because the first finds were made near the Dipylon gate of Athens. (For further details see Bulletin of the Metropolitan Museum of Art " for February, 1911, Vol. VI, No. 2.)