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to teach history to American boys and girls is both a rare opportunity and a task worthy of his best efforts. He must realize that in order to be permanently successful he will need to keep constantly abreast of new knowledge and new methods. Unless he is growing himself, he need not expect to help others to grow.

The course that has been outlined calls for eighty hours of work. This leaves seventy hours for electives, which gives ample opportunity for the student to strengthen his weak places and gratify his interests. In his choosing he should have the counsel of his history professors. They should urge him to take most of his electives in the departments that I have named. The suggested requirement of six units of language seems absurdly small, unless it is remembered that it is a minimum, and also presupposes High School language work. The student should be urged to increase it as fully as possible. Work in English will never be superfluous. History, and the subjects nearest allied, economics, sociology, and government, should be elected freely. I have indicated certain courses in other departments than history that are especially useful to the history teacher. A knowledge of finance and of the constitutional law of the United States are invaluable in teaching American history and government. The second of these courses will afford a helpful introduction to the lawyer's method of using cases. The difficult task of interesting thirteen-year-old boys in Greek and Roman history will be simplified if the teacher is familiar with the private and social life of those peoples, and therefore can teach more than the annals of war and politics. Indeed, so long as we keep ancient history in the first year of the High School, every teacher of the subject should be required to possess this knowledge. Some instruction in the general principles of law will help in teaching civics. A knowledge of Latin not only helps in Roman history, but illuminates also the later centuries when that tongue was the language of learning, law, diplomacy and religion. In choosing electives it is often profitable to select teachers as well as courses. One of the surest ways to learn to teach is to have contact with successful teachers. Therefore our prospective teacher would do well to elect certain courses for no other reason than that they are conducted by strong teachers.

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3. Undue specialization in history should be avoided. 4. The history work should include:

(a) A general view of the history of European civilization.

(b) A good training in historical method.

(c) A special study of secondary history teaching.

5. The college history department should follow up the work of its graduates.

It is due chiefly to the colleges that the study and teaching of history in America has made such rapid advances in the last few years. In the future as in the past it is the colleges that must inspire and lead. If they continue as they have begun, and take up the training of teachers seriously and carefully, the profession of teacher will be in America as in Germany, second to none in importance and dignity. The consequence of this will be to attract to the work the best brains of the land. The average youth of ability has no respect for tasks that anybody can perform. Train the teacher as carefully and thoroughly as the lawyer and the physician, and his recognition, his rewards, and his achievements will be no less than theirs.

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7. History

(a) General history, or Europe in

cluding nineteenth century....10

.12

.10

6

(b) English.

6

(c) American

6

(d) Seminar or research.

4 or 6

.4 or 2 30

..80

(e) Teacher's Course

Total.

When finally the course is completed, and our ambitious and confident young pedagogue, certificate in hand, departs to enter his first classroom, it must not be supposed, by him or his college, that his training is completed. In a sense it is just beginning. The responsibility of the college and the department should not end as soon as it has found its graduates situations. The department should "follow up its graduates and keep in touch with them. The first years of teaching are full of perils, and the young teacher still needs guidance and encouragement. If his professor hears Leaving 70 for electives. that he is succeeding, a word to that effect will help wonderfully. No less needed is word of the criticisms that find their way back to college. By this continued interest, not only will the teachers be strengthened, and the cause of history advanced, but the helpful influence of the college will be felt in every community where its graduates are working. To summarize, I have tried to maintain five propositions: 1. History teaching in High Schools requires a special preparation.

2. This preparation should be broad, including in its scope languages, English literature, science, education, economics, sociology, and government, in addition to history.

B. STRONGLY RECOMMENDED

1. Science.

(a) Evolution.

(b) Embryology.
2. History of Philosophy.
3. Logic.

4. Finance and Taxation.
5. Constitutional Law.

6. General Elementary Law.

7. Greek and Roman Private and Social Life.
8. Economic History.

*Or five years.-EDITOR.

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June Examination Papers in History

Set by the College Entrance Examination Board, June, 1910

History teachers in secondary schools and colleges will be interested in the following reprint of the history papers set for the June, 1910, examinations of the College Entrance Examination Board. These examinations represent the highest standard for secondary history teaching in the country, and the papers should be carefully studied by teachers, not for the topics included, for these will vary from year to year, but rather to discern the method of instruction implied in the questions and the character of topics likely to be touched upon. The time assigned to each of the history subjects was two hours.

HISTORY A-ANCIENT HISTORY.

[Important dates should be given wherever the nature of the question admits of doing so.]

Group I. (Answer one question.)

1. What were the contributions of Egypt to civilization?

2. Explain the reference to the Jews in the following statement:
"The Jews are sometimes counted a fourth influence, with
Greeks, Romans, and Teutons, in making our world."
Group II. (Answer two questions.)

1. Name the principal bonds of union among the Greeks, and show
the influence of two of them.

2. Write an account of the life of Pericles. Give the author and title of any book or books from which you have read on this subject.

3. What was the effect of the battle of Marathon on the political influence of Athens?

Group III. (Answer one question.)

1. Indicate on map 46 three colonies founded by the Greeks and three Greek cities which were active in colonization.

2. Mark on map 46a the boundaries of three Roman provinces which were taken possession of by the Germans, with the names of the provinces, the names of the people that conquered them, and the approximate dates at which the Roman authority was overthrown.

Group IV. (Answer three questions.)

1. Point out the effect of foreign conquest upon Roman character and Roman religion, taking your illustrations from the period 133-44 B.C.

2. Give an account of the conspiracy of Cataline, and show how the conspiracy illustrates political and social conditions at Rome. From what books have you derived information regarding this topic?

3. Describe Hannibal's campaign in Gaul and Italy.

4. How did Rome come to have an imperial form of government? Group V. (Answer one question.)

1. What was the effect of the barbarian invasions on the power and work of the church?

2. What was the nature of the alliance between the papacy and the Frankish kings and wherein did the alliance benefit both the Franks and the church?

HISTORY B-MEDIEVAL AND MODERN HISTORY.

Group I. (Answer one question.)

1. What is meant by the temporal power of the church? Give illustrations of the use of this power before 1300.

2. Show how an early medieval monarchy got on without a regular system of taxation.

Group II. (Answer two questions.)

1. What were the motives of the Crusaders, and why did the Crusades fail? Give the author and title of any book or books from which you have read in studying the Crusades?

2. What is meant by the "revival of learning"? Name two scholars prominent in it, and state where and when each lived and what each of them did.

3. Sketch the political condition of France in the first half of the fifteenth century, with special reference to the influence of Joan of Arc.

4. What political and economic conditions in Germany prepared the way for the Protestant revolt under Luther?

Group III. (Answer one question.)

1. Show on map 45 the chief trade routes between Western Europe and the East in the fifteenth century, and mark the sites of the most important trading towns on those routes.

2. Indicate on map 45 the boundaries of the Napoleonic Empire at its greatest extent.

Group IV. (Answer two questions.)

1. What did France owe to Richelieu ?

2. What was the effect of the Thirty Years' War on political and social conditions in Germany?

3. Write a life of Peter the Great, paying particular attention to his travels and reforms.

Group V. (Answer two questions.)

1. In what ways did Voltaire and Rousseau affect the French Revolution? Mention any books you have used that throw light on the condition of France just before the Revolution.

2. What were the purposes of the Holy Alliance, and why did not Great Britain join?

3. Trace the steps in the unification of Italy in the nineteenth century, and point out the relation of Bismarck to the move

ment.

HISTORY C-ENGLISH HISTORY.
Group I. (Answer two questions.)

1. What political institutions developed in England as a result of
the Anglo-Saxon conquest?

2. Wherein did feudalism in England under the Norman kings differ from contemporary feudalism in France?

3. What remained to be done after the battle of Senlac (Hastings) to complete the Norman conquest, and how much was done by William I? Give the author and title of any book or books from which you have read on the subject of the Norman conquest.

Group II. (Answer two questions.)

1. What did England owe to Henry II?

2. Give an account of the life and work of Wycliffe.

3. Give an account of the social and economic changes that took place in England during the Hundred Years' War.

Group III. (Answer one question.)

1. Show on map 48 the regions on the continent held or claimed by England in the time of Henry II. Mark by the letter A the regions lost to England during the reign of John, and by the letter B those lost in consequence of the Hundred Years' War.

2. Indicate on map 30 the chief colonial possessions of England at the close of the Seven Years' War, distinguishing by the letter A those acquired by conquest or treaty.

Group IV. (Answer three questions.)

1. Wherein did Elizabeth continue the work of Henry VIII? Men. tion the books you have used in the study of these two reigns.

2. Why was England willing to receive William III as king, and why did he consent to become king?

3. Compare Walpole and the elder Pitt as political leaders.

4. Describe the relations between England and Ireland in the reign
of Victoria.

HISTORY D-AMERICAN HISTORY.
Group I. (Answer two questions.)

1. In what respects was the colonial policy of England in America
in the seventeenth century similar to that of France, and in
what respects did it differ?

2. What important Indian wars occurred in New England? What was the effect of the wars on the growth of the colonies and on their relations with one another?

3. What were the principal industries of the English colonies in America by the middle of the eighteenth century, and what were the principal articles of colonial trade with England?

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1. What services did France render to the American cause during the Revolution?

2. What services did Hamilton render to the United States after the Revolution? Give the author and title of any book or books from which you have read on the life of Hamilton. Group III. (Answer one question.)

1. Show on map 64 the territorial claims of England, France, Spain, Holland, and Sweden in North America in the seventeenth century.

2. Mark on map 32 (a) the Mason and Dixon line, (b) the southern and eastern limits of the Northwest Territory, and (c) the Missouri Compromise line.

Group IV. (Answer three questions.)

1. Mention two periods in which the tariff has been a sectional issue, and give an account of events in one of them.

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1. "There is no denying," says Mr. Bryce, "that the government of cities is the one conspicuous failure of the United States." Explain this statement, and mention a proposed remedy just now much discussed.

2. Describe the growth of the movement for civil service reform since 1883, and mention one or more classes of federal offices to which the principles of the reform have been applied.

History in the Grades

Materials for a Lesson upon Indian Treaties

At the opening of the course in American History the question of the relation of the settlers to the Indians will naturally arise, and one phase of this relationship is seen in the treaties made between the Europeans and the Indians. The Indian language was symbolical and metaphorical; with him certain signs stood for long harangues or extended documents. The settlers easily learned the few catch words or phrases which meant so much to the Indian, and, putting aside the European conventionalities in their conferences with the Indians, they used almost to excess the language and symbols of the aborigines. That the Indians appreciated this consideration is shown by the reply of the Six Nations to Colonel William Johnson on September 10, 1753: "We are pleased with everything you have said, and return you a great many thanks for speaking in our own way, which is more intelligible to us, because more conformable to the Customs and Manners of our Forefathers." (Documentary History of New York, II, 640.)

The following two extracts illustrate the metaphorical language of the Indians; they show the nature of the gifts made to the Indians and the method of punctuating their spoken discourse by the presentation of gifts on the part of the Indians with beaver skins, and on the part of the English with strings or belts of wampum, bright articles of clothing, ammunition, cutlery, etc. The spelling of the originals has been preserved.

See first page of cover for facsimile of an Indian treaty.
The Governor delivered the following speech:

Brother Teedyuscung, and you my Brethren now present-
Yesterday I sent two Gentlemen of the Council and the
Provincial Interpreter to meet you at Germantown and to
conduct you to this old Council Fire.

with this String pull out the Bryars and anoint your Legs
with healing salve.
A String.
Brother:

With this String I wash all bitterness and dust that may
stick in your throat, and I clear the Passage from your
heart to your mouth, that you may speak openly and freely
whatsoever you may have to communicate to me.
A String.
Brethren:

As you must be tired with your long Journey, I desire you will take your rest to-day, and as you have informed me that you will be ready to speak to me to morrow morning I will with pleasure attend you

Brothers:

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As your Cloaths are worn out and torn by the Briars in your long Journey, the good People of Pennsylvania present you with some others, which you will divide, amongst you as you think proper.

A LIST OF THE GOODS PRESENTED TO THE INDIANS.

1 Piece of Stroud.

I Piece of Red Stroud,

2 Pieces of white halfthick,

2 Pieces Purple ditto,

20 fine Tandem Ruffled Shirts,

30 good plain Shirts,

3 Groce Star Garters,

12 Strouds,

3 pieces Blankets,

31b Vermillion,

2 fine laced Hatts,

2 doz. fine felt Hats,

1 pce. 18 yds Callicoe,

2 doz. large white wrot Buckles,

2 doz. Cutteau knives,

2 doz. large ditto,

1 doz. bulgee Silk Handkerchiefs,

1 thousand needles,

50 lb. Tobacco,

6 painted frame Glasses,

24 neat pocket ditto,

1 Cag Pipes, conts 3 Groce,

20 pr Mens Shoes.

Philadelphia, July 6, 1758; Penna. Archives, 1st Series, Vol. III, 457, 467).

Extracts from the Journal of Governor Benjamin Fletcher's Visit to Albany, Sept. 17-Oct. 5, 1696.

Sept. 17th 1696. On Thursday after sunsett his Excell:

I now, in behalf of the Inhabitants of this Province, by imbarqued at Greenwich; on Tuesday morning arrived at

this String of Wampum, bid you heartily welcome.

Brother:

Gave a String.

As I am assured you come on Business of Importance, in the first place I with this String wash the Sweat off your Body, and wipe the dust out of your Eyes, that you may rest easy, and see your Brothers with a clean and chearful Countenance. A String.

Brother:

As you come thro' thick dark Woods, where many Bushes and prickly Bryars grow that may have hurt your legs, I

Albany.

29th His Excell: called the Sachems together and spake.

Brethren

I do acquaint you from my most illustrious Master the King of Great Brittaine France and Ireland that he will alwayes extend his gracious proteccon to you and as a seal of it His Majesty has commanded me to deliver you these presents to keep bright the Covenant Chain from all rust and to strengthen it in behalfe of all his Majestyes subjects, not

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Sanonguirese a Sachim of the Mohaques was Speaker Brother Caijenquiragoe [Indian name for Gov. Fletcher)] We returne you thanks for what you have said the day before yesterday in condoling of our losse, and for the kettles which you gave us to boyle our victuals in the room of those that are lost by the enemy as also for the two Belts of Wampum given us as a token of yo' sincerity, by which our hearts are mightily rejoiced and lifted up in this our poor condition. Brother C-*

We are exceedingly rejoyced that the Great King over the Seas has sent us in this our low condition, by which our hearts are lifted up, we were ready to sink in a miserable perishing condition and this makes us revive again. He laid down six Beaver Skins. .

Brother C

We again thank you for the message you have brought from the Great King.

And we pray you to send again to him for us with all vigour and speed, and to lay before the King what we have here said: faile not in writeing, faile not to let the King know it. We give these five beavers to the man that writes, to pay for the paper penn & ink.

Brother C

We desire you to acquaint the Great King as before, that we are a small people and he has a great people and many cannoes with great gunns; we desire you to write to him to know whether he will send them to distroy Canida or not, against the next time the trees grow green; and if he will not send forces to distroy Canida then to send us word thereof that we may make peace for ourselves, for ever, or for some time.

And we earnestly pray you will desire the Great King to send us an answer by the next time the trees grow green. He laid down a bundle of six bevers. .

Dackashata a Sachim of the Sinnekes was Speaker Brother C

We come to condole the losse you daily receive having daily alarms of sculking partyes of the enemy doing mischiefe. Then laid down a belt of Wampum.

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His Excell stood up and said:Brethren.

I have heard what you have said, and have here renewed the Covenant Chain with all the Five Nations the Mohaques, Oneydes, Onnondages, Caijouges, and Sinnekes, in behalf of the Brethren of this Province, Virginia, Maryland, Pensilvania, the Jerseys, Connecticutt & New England; and I assure the Five Nations of his Majtses proteccon. I have provided for you some victualls and drink to drink the King's health, and in confirmacon thereof that it may last as long as the sun & moon endures I give this Belt Wampum. The principle Sachim of the Mohaques called-Oheee The whole Assembly answered Heeeeee Hogh. The Principle Sachim of Oneyde called-Oheee The whole Assembly answered Heeeeee Hogh. The principle Sachim of Onnondage called-Oheee The whole Assembly answered Heeeeee Hogh. The principle Sachim of Caijouge called-Oheee. The whole Assembly answered Heeeeee Hogh. The principle Sachim of Sinneke called-Oheee The whole Assembly answered Heeeeee Hogh.

In the evening His Excell. did appoint the principle Sachims to meet him at a private conference next morning. (Albany, Sept. 17-Oct. 5, 1696; Documents Relating to the Colonial History of New York, IV, 235-239 passim.)

The Geographical Basis of American History

BY ARTHUR M. WOLFSON, PH.D., DE WITT CLINTON HIGH SCHOOL, NEW YORK.

How to Teach Historical Geography. How many teachers of history have not at some time or another been tempted to give way to a feeling of despair at the persistent refusal of pupils to consult a map in studying their history lessons?

Have we not all devised scheme after seheme to eradicate this fundamental weakness? Yet none of them seems to work perfectly. With boys and girls in large cities especially does the teacher find his task extremely difficult. To most city children geography is merely a theoretical science-artificial highroads and highly organized methods of transportation remove the necessity for thought about means of communication, and therefore they give but little attention to the subject of physiography and its influences upon the history of a nation. Most teachers, I am convinced, approach the subject of historical geography in the wrong way. They attempt at the very beginning to pour into the minds of students a mass of unrelated geographical information, trusting that later in the term the children will recall the facts as they are necessary for the proper explanation of historical movements. Instead, physical and political geography should be developed side by side with each other; no fact should be taught until the pupil is ready to see its proper relation. It should be understood, therefore, that it is by no means our intention that any teacher should attempt to present all the facts set forth here in the first few lessons. The story should unfold only as the class follows the progress of the European nations upon the American continent. The Approach to North America and the Eastern Coastal Plains.

The two primary facts in the physiography of any continent are the character of its coast line and the situation and character of its mountains and valleys. The former will determine the extent of its communication with the rest of the world; the latter, the economic, social and political life of its people. Thus it is said of the geography of North America: "The most important geographical fact in the past history of the United States has been their location on the Atlantic opposite Europe; and the most important geographical fact lending a distinctive character to their future history will probably be their location on the Pacific opposite Asia."

Coming from Europe, the Spaniards, the French and the English found a very much broken coast line, offering numerous harbors and shelters for their vessels. Because of their location in Europe, and because they knew of the islands in the Atlantic,

the Spaniards approached the continent from the south, and explored and settled in the lands bordering on the Gulf of Mexico. The French and the English, on the other hand, came from the north and entered and explored the gulfs and bays of the north. One after another, the Gulf of St. Lawrence, the Bay of Fundy, Massachusetts Bay, Long Island Sound, Delaware Bay, Chesapeake Bay, and Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds were entered by the northern nations.

At first all three were seeking for a passage to India; when finally they discovered that this passage, for all practical purposes, did not exist, they began the work of exploiting the resources of the new continent, and then the character of the coastal plains profoundly affected their future history. Stretching away for thousands of miles from the shore of the Gulf of Mexico lay the unbroken plains of the Mississippi Valley, and therefore the Spaniards were led further and further inland, especially to the west of the river, leaving but a slight impression on the history of this part of the continent. Somewhat similarly, the French entered the interior through the St. Lawrence Valley, which offered practically no bars to the progress of the explorer, and therefore the French, too, spread their civilization thin upon the continent. The English, on the other hand, began their settlements in the harbors from Massachusetts Bay to Pamlico Sound, and in this region the coastal plain

extends but two or three hundred miles inland. Thus from the first the Englishman was forced to develop his institutions within comparatively narrow limits, and consequently he settled the country intensively.

The Water Routes and the
Mountain Passes.

Still, even the English did ultimately find their way across the barrier, and it is therefore necessary to study next the character of the Appalachian ranges and the roads that lead through them to the interior. Of the topography of the mountains, the teacher need attempt to give his classes only the most rudimentary knowledge. From the Labrador plateau to the foot hills of Alabama, they consist of a series of comparatively low parallel ranges, separated by numerous longitudinal valleys like those which contain the Connecticut and the Shenandoah Rivers. The chain is com'pletely broken by river systems which extend far into the interior in just two places.

In the north, between the Laurentian Mountains and the Adirondacks, lies the St. Lawrence Valley. Starting at the Gulf,

the explorer was able to carry his goods and chattels up the river in ocean-going ships as far as the Lachine Rapids. Here he was forced to take to the Indian canoe and to the dugout to make his way up the stream into the Great Lakes and their tributaries. From the Great Lakes the road to the Mississippi naturally led by easy portages from Lake Erie, via French Creek, the Muskingum, the Scioto, the Miami, and the Wabash into the Ohio and thence to the great river. These portages should be indicated to the class, though, owing to the presence of the Iroquois, whom Champlain offended early in the seventeenth century, the French were unable to use them until late in the eighteenth century. Instead they were forced to make their way several thousand miles inland to the portages which led from the western lakes, Michigan and Superior, directly to the waters of the Mississippi. These canoe routes were numerous; the class should learn, when the occasion arises. at least three of them. The earliest one to be used by Europeans led from Lake Michigan through Green Bay and the Fox River by a short carry of two or three miles into the waters of the Wisconsin and thence into the Mississippi. This was the route followed by Marquette and Joliet in 1673 when they first explored the Mississippi. The second road led through Lake Superior to its westernmost extremity, thence by the St. Louis River to the portage which crossed directly to the Mississippi. By the end of the seventeenth century the third route, down Lake Michigan to the present sites of Chicago and St. Joseph. Mich., and thence by waterways and portages to the upper waters of the Illinois, was used more extensively than either of the others.

The second great road from the coast inland lies through the valley of the Hudson and the Mohawk and thence by portages into the waters of Lake Ontario. This road was, however, little used till late in the eighteenth century, owing to the presence of the Iroquois. Once it was completely opened it became the greatest of all the highroads. Instead, the English discovered for themselves the trails leading through the mountains: (1) that from the upper waters of the Susquehanna and its tributary, the Juniata, by Indian trails and wood roads to the Allegheny and the Ohio; (2) the road up the Potomac, through the mountains to the upper waters of the Youghiogheny and the Monongahela; (3) the way up the James and the Roanoke, thence through the Virginia and North Carolina mountains into the sources of the Kanawah, the Clinch, and the Holston. All these roads led ultimately into the Ohio,

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