ENGLISH GRAMMAR.

Language, lingua, the tongue :-consists, when spoken, of elementary sounds, and when written, of elementary characters, called letters.

Grammar, ypáμμa, gramma, a letter :-teaches the right use of language. It comprises four parts

1. ORTHOGRAPHY, oplós, orthos, correct; ypápw, grapho, to write :teaches the powers of letters and their proper combination in words.

2. ETYMOLOGY, Ervμos, etumos, the true literal signification of words; Xóyos, logos, science :-teaches the classification, inflection, and derivation of words.

3. SYNTAX, Oúv, sun, together; rážis, taxis, arrangement:-teaches the proper arrangement of words in sentences.

4. PROSODY, Tрooydía, prosodia, a song :-teaches the accent of words and rules of versification.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

ALPHABET, äλpa, alpha, ßñтa, heta, names of the first two letters in Greek :-the arrangement of the English letters. The alphabet is defective; it wants signs for sh, in ship; z in azure; th, in thin; th, in then; and ng, in song; and several vowel sounds It is redundant; c=s or k:-city, cut; j=dsh (dzh), a double sound :--jar; q=cw or k queen, conquer; x=yz; example, exalt.

A LETTER, litera, a letter:-a character representing an elementary sound.

A VOWEL, vocalis, sounding :--a letter forming a perfect sound when uttered by itself:-a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y.

A CONSONANT, con, with; sonans, sounding: -a letter which only forms a perfect sound when joined to a vowel :-b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, x, z, and generally w and y, when they begin or help to begin a word or syllable.

A SYLLABLE, ovv, sun, with; λaßeiv, labein, to take :-a vowel, either alone or with one or more consonants, forming a distinct sound:-a, an, ant. MONOSYLLABLE, μóvos, monos, alone :--a word of one syllable :-hat. DISSYLLABLE, dís, dis, two :-a word of two syllables: -woman. TRISSYLLABLE, Tpís, tris, three-a word of three syllables :-ivory. POLYSYLLABLE, TOλús, polus, many a word of more than three syllables :-termination.

A DIPHTHONG, dís, dis, two; plovyý, pthonge, sound :-two vowels forming one syllable; beat. When each vowel is sounded, the diphthong is called proper, and when only one is sounded, improper :-voice, boat. A TRIPHTHONG, Tpís, tris, three:-three vowels forming one syllable :---view, adieu, beauty.

ETYMOLOGY.

Words as they are differently used in speaking are divided into certain classes. A part of speech is a distinct class of words. The parts of speech are eight:-noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjection.

NOUN, nomen, a name :-the name of anything that exists, or is supposed to exist:--man, woman, house, John, London, the Henrys.

I. PROPER, proprius, peculiar :-a name indicating by its form or sound an individual or class of individuals :-- William, London.

II. COMMON, communis, pertaining to one as well as another :-a significant name shared by each one of a class of objects :--book, house. 1. Concrete, con, together; cretus, grown or united :-the name of anything that exists :-house, river, city, child.

2. Abstract, abs, from; tractus, drawn:-the name of a quality or property conceived of as independent of a subject:-virtue, whiteness. 3. Collective, con, together; lectus, gathered :--the name which by a singular form denotes a class:-army, fleet, herd.

Of Gender:

Nouns have three genders, genera, kinds.

1. MASCULINE, masculus, a male :-denotes males:-man, father, king. 2. FEMININE, femina, a woman :-denotes females :-woman, mother. 3. NEUTER, neuter, neither:--denotes things without sex:-pen, ink, paper.

Indications of Gender :-
·--

1. A different termination :-lion, lioness; hunter, huntress; executor, executrix; hero, heroine.

2. A prefix:-man-servant, maid-servant; he-goat, she-goat; cocksparrow, hen-sparrow.

3. A different word :--bachelor, spinster; boy, girl; brother, sister; buck, doe; earl, countess; husband, wife; man, woman; master, mistress ; sir, madam; son, daughter; stag, hind; wizard, witch; father, mother.

The gender of nouns applicable to either sex is determined by the context; but if both sexes are spoken of, the noun is of common gender. The masculine form often includes males and females :-man is mortal. Neuter nouns personified are masculine or feminine.

Of Number:

Nouns have two numbers.

-boys, hats.

I. SINGULAR, singularis, single :--denotes a single object :-boy, hat.
II. PLURAL, pluralis, many :-denotes more than one :-
The plural is formed from the singular-

1. By adding 8:-flower, flowers; ship, ships; path, paths.

2. By adding es to the endings ch, sh, 8, x, or o, after a consonant :— church, churches; dish, dishes; lens, lenses; fox, foxes; negro, negroes. Cameo, embryo, nuncio, bamboo, canto, cento, duodecimo, grotto, halo, junto, memento, motto, octavo, portico, quarto, solo, two, tyro, zero, take s.

3. By changing f or fe into ves :--sheaf, sheaves; wife, wives. Brief, chief, dwarf, grief, gulf, handkerchief, mischief, muff, proof, relief, take s.

4. By changing y, after a consonant, into ies :--duty, duties.

5. By a change of vowel -man, men; foot, feet; tooth, teeth. 6. By the Saxon plural form en :-ox, oxen; child, children.

7. Nouns adopted from other languages, for the most part retain their original plural forms. The principal changes are

a. A into æ:-larva, larvæ; nebula, nebula.

b. Us into i or era :-focus, foci; magus, magi; genus, genera. c. On and um into a :-phenomenon, phenomena; datum, data. d. Is into es or ides :--axis, axes; oasis, oases; aphis, aphides. e. Ix, or ex, into ices :--appendix, appendices; index, indices. f. Bandit, banditti: beau, beaux; cherub, cherubim; madame, mesdames; monsieur, messieurs; seraph, seraphim; dilettante, dilettanti ; virtuoso, virtuosi.

Compound words, consisting of a noun followed by a descriptive expression, indicate the plural in the first term :-court-martial, courts-martial; but when the noun is preceded by the descriptive expression, the second term assumes s; mouse-trap, mouse-traps.

Proper nouns, for the most part, form their plurals by adding s or es :--Carolina, the Carolinas; James, the Jameses.

Some nouns have two plurals which differ in signification; brethren= members of a society; brothers relatives; dice=spotted cubes for gaming; dies stamps for coining money; geniuses-people of genius; genii-spirits; indexes, table of contents; indices, in algebra, pence= the amount of money in value; pennies the coins themselves; peas=the seeds as distinct objects; pease, the species.

Alms, riches, are in form singular; in meaning, singular or plural. Amends, gallows, news, means, pains, are in form plural; in meaning, singular or plural.

Ethics, mathematics, metaphysics, optics, physics, pneumatics, politics, &c., are in form plural; in meaning, singular.

Ashes, bellows, clothes, compasses, goods, morals, scissors, tongs, victuals, have no singular.

Barley, negligence, gold, iron, milk, eloquence, wheat, have no plural. Deer, salmon, sheep, trout, swine, &c., are the same in both numbers.

Of Case:

Nouns have three cases; cado, to fall.

I. NOMINATIVE, nominatus, named :-denotes the subject of a verb; the boy runs.

II. POSSESSIVE, possessum, possessed :—denotes the relation of ownership or property:-the boy's hat.

The possessive singular is formed by adding to the nominative s, preceded by an apostrophe :-boy, boy's. The possessive plural, when the nominative ends in s, is formed by adding an apostrophe only:-boys, boys'. To avoid concurrent hissing sounds, the possessive singular is sometimes formed by the addition of an apostrophe; for elegance' sake.

III. OBJECTIVE, ob, in the way; jactus, thrown :--denotes the object of a verb, participial adjective, or preposition :-I know the boy, having seen him at school, and he knows me.

Person, persona, a person :-a distinction indicating the speaker, the person addressed, or the person or thing spoken of. These are respectively called the first, second, and third persons:-I, Paul, have written it; Robert, who did this? James loves his book.

ADJECTIVE, ad, to; jactus, thrown to, or added:-the word which, joined to a noun, expresses some property or quality.

I. ATTRIBUTIVE, ad to tributus, given:-express quality:-good, happy. II. DEFINITIVE, de, down; finis, a limit :-denote position, or extent. 1. Numeral, numerus, a number:-express the relations of number and quantity.

a. Cardinal, cardo, a hinge :-denote a definite number :--one, two. The indefinite article a, or an, from the Saxon a'n=one; limits the noun to one class of objects, but refers to no particular one.

A is used when the following word begins with the sound of a consonant, or with the consonantal sound of w ory; but when a word beginning with the sound of h has the accent on the second syllable, an is prefixed:-an hyena, an heroic deed.

b. Ordinal, ordo, order :-imply that the object occupies a particular position in a succession of numbers:-first, second, third.

2. Distributive, dis, a part; tribuo, to apportion :--either, each, every, neither, both, only; other, another, all, several.

3. Demonstrative, demonstro, to point out:-this, that; yon, yonder. The definite article the = this, that :-limits the noun to some one or more of the class named.

III. PARTICIPIAL, particeps, partaking:-adjectives involving the idea of time.

a. Imperfect action incomplete; loving.

b. Past-action complete; loved.

e. Future, formed by an auxiliary=action future; going or about to love.

Of Comparison:

Adjectives express quality in three different degrees.

1. POSITIVE, positus, laid down, absolute-the adjective in its simple state, affirming something positively about the noun :-a large elephant. 2. COMPARATIVE, con, together; paratus, brought :-denotes that the

quality expressed is possessed in a greater degree than by something compared with it :—a whale is larger than an elephant.

3. SUPERLATIVE, super, beyond; latus, borne: - denotes that the quality expressed is possessed in a very high degree, and when there is comparison in the greatest degree :-the whale is the largest animal.

The comparative and superlative degrees are formed

1. By adding er and est, respectively, to the positive form :-weak, weaker, weakest.

When the positive ends in e, only r and st are added:-large, larger, largest.

2. By the prefixes more and most to adjectives of more than two syllables:beautiful, more beautiful, most beautiful.

3. By a different word; good, better, best; bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst; little, less, lesser, least; much, many, more, most: old, older, elder, older, eldest; near, nearer, nearest or next; far, farther, farthest ; late, later or latter, latest or last; up, upper, upmost or uppermost; in, inner, inmost or innermost; out, outer or utter, outmost or utmost; fore, former, foremost or first.

Adjectives ending in y, preceded by a consonant, add r and st to ie, the old termination of the positive :-pretty, prettier, prettiest.

Some adjectives do not admit of comparison :-one, second, all, every, immortal, circular, square, infinite,

PRONOUN, pro, for; nomen, a name :-the word used instead of a noun. 1. PERSONAL, persona, a person :-I, thou, he, she, it.

First Personal.

Nom. I.

We.
Poss. My, mine. Our, ours.
Obj, Me.
Us.

Second Personal.
Thou. You, ye.
Thy, thine. Your, yours.
Thee. You, ye.

Third Personal.
They.

He, she, it.
His, her, hers, its. Their, theirs.
Him, her, it. Them.

2. RELATIVE, re, back; latus, brought :-a pronoun that recalls the antecedent term. Nom. Who, which; Poss. Whose; Obj. Whom, which. What that which, combines an antecedent with a relative. What and which often occur as adjectives :-what tidings have come?

That is used for who, whom, which.

3. INTERROGATIVE, interrogo, to ask :-the relative pronouns used in asking questions :-Who gave you the book?= Mention the person who gave you the book.

SELF, plural selves, is annexed to personal pronouns :-myself, ourselves. EVER every or any one, is affixed to relative pronouns :-whoever.

VERB, verbum, a word:-the word which expresses the notion of an energy, action, or state.

I. Principal.

Verbs according to their signification are

1. TRANSITIVE, transeo, to pass over :-the notion expressed is incomplete without an object:-John caught him.