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a good general may be comprised under four heads,—skill in military affairs, courage, authority, and success; from all which Cicero commends Pompey. And agreeably to this method Suetonius has written the lives of the first twelve Cæsars.

But in praising of persons, care should always be taken to say nothing that may seem fictitious or out of character, which may call the orator's judgment or integrity in question. It was not without cause therefore, that Lysippus the statuary, as Plutarch tells us, blamed Apelles for painting Alexander the Great with thunder in his hand; which could never suit his character as a man, however he might boast of his divine descent; for which reason Lysippus himself made an image of him holding a spear, as the sign of a warrior. Light and trivial things in commendations are likewise to be avoided, and nothing mentioned but what may carry in it the idea of something truly valuable, and which the hearers may be supposed to wish for, and is proper to excite their emulation. These are the principal heads of praise with relation to men. In dispraise, as was hinted before, the heads contrary to these are requisite; which being sufficiently clear from what has been said, need not particularly be insisted on.

I proceed, therefore, to the other part of the division, which respects things as distinguished from persons. By which we are to understand all beings inferior to man, whether animate or inanimate; as likewise the habits and dispositions of men either good or bad, when considered separately and apart from their subjects, as arts and sciences, virtues and vices, with whatever else may be a proper subject for praise or dispraise. Some writers indeed have, for their

own amusement and the diversion of others, displayed their eloquence in a jocose manner upon

subjects of this kind. So Lucian has written in praise of a fly, and Sinesius an elegant encomium upon baldness. Others, on the contrary, have done the like in a satirical way. Such is Seneca's Apotheosis or consecration of the emperor Claudius; and the Mysopogon or Beardhater, written by Julian the emperor. Not to mention several modern authors who have imitated them in such ludicrous compositions. But as to these things, and all of the like nature, the observation of Antony in Cicero seems very just: That it is not necessary to reduce every subject we discourse upon to rules of art. For many are so trivial as not to deserve it: and others so plain and evident of themselves as not to require it. But since it frequently comes in the way both of orators and historians to describe countries, cities, and facts, I shall briefly mention the principal heads of invention proper to illustrate each of these.

Countries then may be celebrated from the pleasantness of their situation, the clemency and wholesomeness of the air, and goodness of the soil, to which last may be referred the springs, rivers, woods, plains, mountains, and minerals. And to all these may be added their extent, cities, the number and antiquity of the inhabitants, their policy, laws, customs, wealth, character for cultivating the arts both of peace and war, their princes, and other eminent men they have produced. Thus Pacatus has given us a very elegant description of Spain, in his panegyric upon the emperor Theodosius, who was born there.

Cities are praised from much the same topics as countries. And here, whatever contributes

either to their defence or ornament ought particularly to be mentioned; as the strength of the walls and fortifications, the beauty and splendour of their buildings, whether sacred or civil, public or private. We have in Herodotus a very fine description of Babylon, which was once the strongest, largest, and most regular city in the world. And Cicero has accurately described the city Syracuse, in the island Sicily, in one of his orations against Verres.

But facts come much oftener under the cognizance of an orator: and these receive their commendation from their honour, justice, or advantage. But in describing them all the circumstances should be related in their proper order, and that in the most lively and affecting manner, suited to their different nature. Livy has represented the demolition of Alba by the Roman army which was sent thither to destroy it, through the whole course of that melancholy scene, in a style so moving and pathetic, that one can hardly forbear condoling with the inhabitants upon reading his account.

But in discourses of this kind, whether of praise or dispraise, the orator should (as he ought indeed upon all occasions) well consider where, and to whom, he speaks: for wise men often think very differently both of persons and things from the common people. And we find that learned and judicious men are frequently divided in their sentiments from the several ways of thinking to which they have been accustomed. Besides, different opinions prevail and gain the ascendant at different times. While the Romans continued a free nation, love of their country, liberty, and a public spirit, were principles in the highest esteem among them. And therefore when Cato killed himself that he might not

fall into the hands of Cæsar, and survive the liberty of his country, it was thought an instance of the greatest heroic virtue; but afterwards, when they had been accustomed to an arbitrary government, and the spirit of liberty was now lost, the poet Martial could venture to

say,

Death to avoid 'tis madness sure to die.

A prudent orator therefore will be cautious of opposing any settled and prevailing notions of those whom he addresses; unless it be necessary, and then he will do it in the softest and most gentle manner.

Now if we look back and consider the several heads of praise enumerated under each of the subjects above mentioned, we shall find they are taken from their nature, properties, circumstances, or some other general topic, as was intimated in the beginning of this discourse.

Of Arguments suited to deliberative Discourses

THIS kind of discourses must certainly have been very ancient, since doubtless from the first beginning of men's conversing together they deliberated upon their common interest, and offered their advice to each other.

All deliberation respects something future, for it is in vain to consult about what is already past. The subject matter of it are either things public or private, sacred or civil: indeed all the valuable concerns of mankind, both present and future, come under its regard; and the end proposed by this kind of discourses is chiefly profit or interest. But since nothing is truly profitable but what is in some respect good; and every thing which is good in itself may not

in all circumstances be for our advantage; properly speaking, what is both good and profitable, or beneficial good, is the end here designed. And, therefore, as it sometimes happens that what appears profitable may seem to interfere with that which is strictly just and honourable, in such cases it is certainly most advisable to determine on the safer side of honour and justice, notwithstanding some plausible things may be offered to the contrary. But where the dispute lies apparently between what is truly honest, and some external advantage proposed in opposition to it, all good men cannot but agree in favour of honesty. Now when it

proves to be a matter of debate whether a thing. upon the whole be really beneficial or not, as here arise two parts, advice and dissuasion, they will each require proper heads of argument but as they are contrary to each other, he who is acquainted with one cannot well be ignorant of the other. For which reason, as in my last discourse, I recited only the topics suited for praise, leaving those for dispraise to be collected from them; so here, likewise, I shall chiefly mention those proper for advice, whence such as are suited to dissuade will easily be perceived. Now the principal heads of this kind are these following, which are taken from the nature and properties of the thing itself under consideration.

And first, pleasure often affords a very cogent argument in discourses of this nature. Every one knows what an influence this has upon the generality of mankind. Though, as Quintilian remarks, pleasure ought not of itself to be proposed as a fit motive for action in serious discourses, but when it is designed to recommend something useful, which is the case here, So,

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