led to the efforts of Luther, Calvin, Cranmer, and others.

A reformed religion was, in consequence, established in Great Britain, Germany, Sweden, Holland, and some other countries, called Protestant, from the early reformers protesting against the proceedings of a Romish council.

381. The Protestants have subdivided themselves into

Lutherans, or followers of Luther.

Calvinists, or those who prefer the doctrines of Calvin.

Arminians, who follow those of Arminius.
Socinians, those of Socinus.

Anglican, who prefer the national church of England, and its rites and liturgy.

Presbyterians, who deny the authority of bishops.

Independents, who adhere to the principle that every church, or society of Christians, has a right to govern itself without the interference of another.

Baptists, who disapprove of infant baptism. Quakers, who have no external religious ce remonies, or sacraments.

Unitarians, who deny the doctrine of the Trinity.

Swedenborgians, who believe in the divine mission of Emanuel Swedenborg.

And Methodists, who use the church-liturgy, but preach extemporaneously.

382. The Jews still exist as a distinct people

in all parts of the world, over which they are dispersed, according to ancient prophecy, pro serving every where their religion and original language.

383. In Turkey, and in most parts of Asia and Africa, the religion of Mahomet, an Arabian impostor of the 7th century, still prevails; and descendants of Mahomet still occupy several Asiatic and African thrones, as sultans, empe rors, &c.

384. In China, the national religion is founded on the pure belief of ONE God; and on the moral writings of Confucius, a Chinese philosopher.

In India, many superstitions and much idolatry prevail; but the effect tends to mamtain subordination and industry; while it teaches peace among men, and charity even to animals and insects.

385. In other nations, Christianity is silently working its way among the people; and civili zation and Christianity appear happily to go hand-in-hand in Africa, in America, and among the South Sea islanders, the majority of whom entertain the grossest superstitions and idola tries.

Obs. For all necessary knowledge on the subject o. theology, and as a general note-book to the Bible, and to all religious inquiries, consult Dr. Robinson's Theos logical Dictionary,

148

XVI. Grammar.

386. The power of communicating ideas by speech is peculiar to man; but it is a power on which depends his improvement in all the arts; because the gradation and accumulation of inprovements depend on co-operation and conti

nuation.

Neither could exist, if the power were not attained of describing improvements to the liv ing, and of trasmitting them to posterity.

387. The language of savage nations is, however, very limited: they are able to call a few hundred things by their names; to express some qualities; and name a few modes of action; but they express more by gesture than by sound: few of them can count above ten; and when desired to express a higher number, they shew the hair of their heads.

388. The most ancient languages consisted of two or three hundred monosyllables, expressing general ideas:as air, sea, tree, man, God, house, good, bad, &c.; and all other words, by a systematic combination, were formed out of these: such were the Welsh, Chinese, and some other languages.

889. The first sounds used by savages, were mere cries of pleasure and pain; as Oh! Ah! and such other words, called INTERJECTIONS.

They next named visible objects; as river, tree, grass, &c.; thereby introducing a new class of words, called NOUNS.

They then derived from nouns, a class of words to express corresponding actions; as walk, talk, eat, drink, &c., called VERBS.

390. The next class of words were intended to describe the qualities of nouns and verbs; as tall, swift, short, fast, &c., called ad-NOUNS and ad-VERBS.

Words, to describe the position of nouns in regard to each other; as to, from, above, below, &c., were also among those necessary to a language, and these were called pre-POSITIONS.

391. The seventh class was a mere refinement of speech, and consisted of words used in place of nouns; as he, she, it, they, &c., called pro

NOUNS.

The eighth class was intended to give precision to the noun; as a man, or the man, and were, therefore, called ARTICLES.

And the ninth class consisted solely of words intended to join others together in a discourse; as and, because, but, yet, &c.; and are called CONJUNC-tions.

392. Such were the origin and progress of speech; and such, without variation, is the general composition of language. The English, and most other languages, contain nine kinds of words, or parts of speech, named as above; and the science of grammar merely supplies general rules for their arrangement and govern

ment.

393. The classification of all words into nine kinds, enables grammarians to simplify the rules which direct the construction of language.

stead of a rule for every word, a few rules are all that become necessary to regulate fifty thousand words,

Obs. For the details of grammar, I must refer the student to my own Practical Grammar; or to any other modern grammar which is not too long and complex. My own Grammar is in its sixth edition; and has been most flatteringly received by many eminent schoolmasters.

394. All names of things, are called nouns or substantives; all qualities of things, are called ad-nouns, or adjectives.

All actions are expressed by verbs.

All words, which modify actions or qualities, are called ad-verbs.

All words, which describe the position of persons and things, are called pre-positions.

All words, which are used instead of nouns, or for nouns, are called pro-nouns,

All words, which are used to join sentences or parts of sentences, are called conjunctions. The words a or an, and the, are called articles.

The exclamatory words, which express earnestness or surprise, are called interjections.

395. The first written signs of words were hieroglyphics, or characters, which represented the object named by the character; and, of course, there were nearly as many characters as ideas. The characters now used for the signs of the Zodiac and the Planets are specimens of this kind of character; and so is a circle or snake, when used to signify eternity.

396. The invention of letters, by combining