convoy was modified, by limiting it to public ships of war of the belligerent party, excluding private armed vessels. Subject to this modification, the pretension of resisting by means of convoy the exercise of the belligerent right of search, was surrendered by Russia and the other northern powers, and various regulations were provided to prevent the abuse of that right to the injury of neutral commerce. As has already been observed, the object of this treaty is expressly declared by the contracting parties, in its preamble, to be the settlement of the differences which had grown out of the armed neutrality by "an invariable determination of their principles upon the rights of neutrality in their application to their respective monarchies." The 8th article also provides that "the principles and measures adopted by the present act, shall be alike applicable to all the maritime wars in which one of the two powers may be engaged, whilst the other remains neutral. These stipulations shall consequently be regarded as permanent, and shall serve as a constant rule for the contracting parties in matters of commerce and navigation." 1 (a) The question arising out of the case of the Swedish convoy gave rise to several instructive polemic essays. The judgment of Sir W. Scott was attacked by Professor J. F. W. Schlegel, of Copenhagen, in a Treatise on the Visitation of Neutral Ships under Convoy, transl. London, 1801; and vindicated by Dr. Croke in "Remarks on M. Schlegel's Work," 1801. See also "Letters of Sulpicius on the Northern Confederacy," London, 1801. "Substance of the Speech of Lord Grenville in the House of Lords, November 13, 1801," London, 1802. Wheaton's Hist. Law of Nations, pp. 390-420. (a) [As neutral vessels, under the existing regulations of all the belligerents during the present war, give immunity to enemy's goods, the visitation must be limited to an inquiry, with a view to the seizure of such contraband goods, as may be on board of neutral vessels bound to an enemy's port and to ascertaining the vessel's neutrality. The treaty of 1801 was annulled, in consequence of the second attack upon Copenhagen and the destruction of the Danish fleet; and the Russian government published, the 26th of October, 1807, a declaration, proclaiming " anew the principles of the armed neutrality, the monument of the wisdom of the Empress Catharine." The maritime convention has since received no sanction in any international stipulations, to which England was not a party. The recent orders and decrees of the belligerents are silent as to convoy. The treaties which the United States made with France, of 30th September, 1800, with Columbia of 3d of October, 1824, with Brazils of 12th December, 1828, with Mexico of 5th of April, 1831, with Chili of 16th of May, 1832, with Peru ance by an ter. In the case of The Maria, the resistance of the con§30. Forcible resist voying ship was held to be a resistance of the whole enemy mas- fleet of merchant vessels under convoy, and subjected the whole to confiscation. This was a case of neutral property condemned for an attempted resistance by a neutral armed vessel to the exercise of the right of visitation and search, by a lawfully commissioned belligerent cruiser. But the forcible resistance by an enemy master will not, in general, affect neutral property laden on board an enemy's merchant vessel; for an attempt on his part to rescue his vessel from the possession of the captor, is nothing more than the hostile act of a hostile person, who has a perfect right to make such an attempt. "If a neutral master," says Sir W. Scott, "attempts a rescue, or to withdraw himself from search, he violates a duty which is imposed upon him by the law of nations, to submit to search, and to come in for inquiry as to the property of the ship or cargo; and if he violates this obligation by a recurrence to force, the consequence will undoubtedly reach the property of his owner; and it would, I think, extend also to the whole property intrusted to his care, and thus fraudulently attempted to be withdrawn from the operation of the rights of war. With an enemy master, the case is very different; no duty is violated by such an act on his part― lupum auribus teneo, and if he can withdraw himself he has a right so to do."l Bolivia of 13th November, 1836, and with Venezuela of 20th January, 1836, all provide that in case of convoy, "the declaration of the commander of the convoy, that the vessels under his protection belong to the nation, whose flag he carries, and, when they are bound to an enemy's port, that they have no contraband goods on board, shall be sufficient." U. S. Stat. at Large, vol. viii. p. 188, 316, 395, 420, 438, 493, 478. Ortolan comes to the conclusion that, independently of treaties, neither the ships of war nor privateers of a belligerent have a right to visit vessels under the convoy of a vessel of war of their own nation, but that the declaration of the commander is sufficient. Ortolan, Diplomatie de la Mer, tom. ii. ch. 7, tom. ii. p. 240, 2ème edit. Such, also, is the doctrine of the other modern continental text writers. See De Martens, Essai sur les Armateurs, ch. 2. De Rayneval, De la Liberté de la Mer, tom. i. c. 18. Klüber, Droit des Gens Moderne, tom. ii. sec. 2, ch. 5, § 293. Even Manning, who holds to the old rules of English admiralty law, while he denies that neutrals, under convoy, can claim to be exempted from search, as a matter of right, deems it desirable that it should be accorded to them by agreement. Manning's Commentaries of the Law of England, p. 360.] 1 Robinson's Adm. Rep. vol. v. p. 232. The Catharina Elizabeth. 31. Right armed ene The question how far a neutral merchant has a right to lade his goods on board an armed enemy vessel, and of a neutral to carry his how far his property is involved in the consequences of goods in an resistance by the enemy master, was agitated both in my vessel. the British and American prize courts, during the last war between Great Britain and the United States. In a case adjudged by the Supreme Court of the United States, in 1815, it was determined, that a neutral had a right to charter and lade his goods on board a belligerent armed merchant ship, without forfeiting his neutral character, unless he actually concurred and participated in the enemy master's resistance to capture.' (a) Contemporaneously with this decision of the American court, Sir W. Scott held directly the contrary doctrine, and decreed salvage for the recapture of neutral Portuguese property, previously taken by an American cruiser from on board an armed British vessel, upon the ground that the American prize courts might justly have condemned the property.2 In reviewing its former decision, in a subsequent case adjudged in 1818, the American court confirmed it; and, alluding to the decisions in the English High Court of Admiralty, stated, that if a similar case should again occur in that court, and the decisions of the American court should in the mean time have reached the learned judge, he would be called upon to acknowledge that the danger of condemnation in the United States courts was not as great as he had imagined. In determining the last-mentioned 1 Cranch's Rep. vol. ix. p. 388. The Nereide. (a) [See dissenting opinion, in this case, of Story, Justice, referred to in Wildman's International Law, vol. ii. p. 126, where on its authority the opposite principle is stated as American law. This same dissenting opinion will be found cited in the remarks connected with the negotiations of Mr. Wheaton, which resulted in the treaty of indemnity with Denmark. Vide infra, § 32, note. The question could not practically arise in France, before the assimilation in the present war of the Maritime Codes of the allies, as where the nationality of the cargo followed that of the ship the lading of neutral goods, on board of an enemy's ship, whether armed or not, would have equally subjected them to capture and condemnation. Ortolan states the contradictory English and American decisions, and Hautefeuille sustains on principle the American against that of Sir William Scott. Diplomatie de la Mer, liv. iii. ch. 7, p. 225, 2ème ed. Droits des Nations Neutres, tom. iii. p. 420.] 2 Dodson's Adm. Rep. vol. i. p. 443. The Fanny. case, the American court distinguished it both from those where neutral vessels were condemned for the unneutral act of the convoying vessel, and those where neutral vessels had been condemned for placing themselves under enemy's convoy. With regard to the first class of cases, it was well known that they originated in the capture of the Swedish convoy, at the time when Great Britain had resolved to throw down the glove to all the world, on the contested principles of the northern maritime confederacy. But, independently of this, there was several considerations which presented an obvious distinction between both classes of cases and that under consideration. A convoy was an association for a hostile object. In undertaking it, a State spreads over the merchant vessels an immunity from search which belongs only to a national ship; and by joining a convoy, every individual vessel puts off her pacific character, and undertakes for the discharge of duties which belong only to the military marine. If, then, the association be voluntary, the neutral, in suffering the fate of the entire convoy, has only to regret his own folly in wedding his fortune to theirs; or if involved in the resistance of the convoying ship, he shares the fate to which the leader of his own choice is liable in case of capture.1 tral vessels under enemy's convoy, liable § 32. Neu- The Danish government issued, in 1810, an ordinance relating to captures, which declared to be good and lawful prize "such vessels as, notwithstanding their flag is to capture? considered neutral, as well with regard to Great Britain as the powers at war with the same nation, still, either in the Atlantic or Baltic, have made use of English convoy." Under this ordinance, many American neutral vessels were captured, and, with their cargoes, condemned in the Danish prize courts for offending against its provisions. In the course of the discussions which subsequently took place between the American and Danish governments respecting the legality of these condemnations, the principles upon which the ordinance was grounded were questioned by the United States government, as inconsistent with the established rules of international law. It was insisted that the prize ordinances of Denmark, or of any other 1 Wheaton's Rep. vol. iii. p. 409. The Atalanta. particular State, could not make or alter the general law of nations, nor introduce a new rule binding on neutral powers. The right of the Danish monarch to legislate for his own subjects and his own tribunals, was incontestible; but before his edicts could operate upon foreigners carrying on their commerce upon the seas, which are the common property of all nations, it must be shown that they were conformable to the law by which all are bound. It was, however, unnecessary to suppose, that in issuing these instructions to its cruisers, the Danish government intended to do any thing more than merely to lay down rules of decision for its own tribunals, conformable to what that government understood to be just principles of public law. But the observation became important when it was considered, that the law of nations nowhere existed in the written code accessible to all, and to whose authority all deferred; and that the present question regarded the application of a principle (to say the least) of doubtful authority, to the confiscation of neutral property for a supposed offence committed, not by the owner, but by his agent the master, without the knowledge or orders of the owner, under a belligerent edict, retrospective in its operation, because unknown to those whom it was to affect. The principle laid down in the ordinance, as interpreted by the Danish tribunals, was, that the fact of having navigated under enemys' convoy is, per se, a justifiable cause, not of capture merely, but of condemnation in the courts of the other belligerent; and that, without inquiring into the proofs of proprietary interest, or the circumstances and motives under which the captured vessel had joined the convoy, or into the legality of the voyage, or the innocence of her conduct in other respects. A belligerent pretension so harsh, apparently so new, and so important in its consequences, before it could be assented to by the neutral States, must be rigorously demonstrated by the authority of the writers on public law, or shown to be countenanced by the usage of nations. Not one of the numerous expounders of that law even mentioned it; no belligerent nation had ever before acted upon it; and still less could it be asserted that any neutral nation had ever acquiesced in it. Great Britain, indeed, had contended that a neutral State had no right to resist the exercise of the belligerent claim of visitation and search by means of convoys consisting of its own ships of war. But the |