movement is noticeable to encourage the abolition of grade crossings and to guard these more carefully in the many places where they still exist. Bringing trains to a stop at railway crossings, or permitting them to pass without stopping in case interlocking switches are used; the construction of switches and the use of keys for the same; the blocking of frogs, in order to prevent feet of workmen from being caught in them; and similar subjects, relating to safety in the construction of tracks, have called forth numerous recent laws. An old and ever-recurring subject for legislation is that of fences, cattle guards, bells, whistles, etc. The introduction of automatic couplers has been greatly promoted by the legislatures of a number of leading states, as well as the use of continuous. train brakes. In a few laws the number of brakemen for every train, or for a certain number of cars, is also prescribed. Several laws regulate the question of precedence among trains. In almost all states laws have been passed regulating the speed of trains in cities, although these are usually limited by municipal ordinance, in crossing each other's tracks, and in crossing bridges. In the Southern States the law commonly provides for separate coaches for white and colored persons; in others, the heating of cars and coaches is made. compulsory. Fresh water must be supplied at stations and in coaches, and the necessary conveniences for personal comfort provided on trains and in railway stations. In a few cases the laws

provide for the examination of employees and the licensing of engineers, and prohibit the employment of persons addicted to drink. The adequacy with which individual states deal with one or more of these topics will be illustrated by the summaries of the laws upon these points in several leading states.

Alabama. - Speed of trains in cities regulated; fresh water supplied; separate coaches for white and colored persons; conductors may assign seats to colored persons; employees may be examined and licensed; the necessary lights shall be kept on switches.

Arkansas. Separate coaches to be provided; officers assign seats to passengers; fresh water; railways responsible for baggage forty-eight hours after arrival; the rear of passenger cars to be kept clear.

Connecticut.- Crossings regulated and frogs locked in the manner prescribed by the commission; safety couplers, approved by railway commission, required; speed of trains regulated by the commission; number of brakemen varies with speed and equipment of trains; fresh water to be supplied, and engineers sworn to obey the law.

New York. - Automatic couplers; automatic air brakes for every train, sufficient to control train; railroad commission supervises the construction of switches and signals; tunnels properly lighted and ventilated; when set-offs are used in cars, the commission may approve or disapprove; railway crossings according to law.

Ohio. Automatic couplers, and interlocking switches at grade crossings, subject to the approval of the commission; commission to prescribe speed of trains over bridges; crossings constructed according to law; engineers addicted to drink not to be employed.1

In recent years the commission laws of different states have provided for the reporting of accidents to passengers and employees. These reports are frequently made to the commission in the forms prescribed by that body. In some cases it is made the duty of the commission to investigate railway accidents.2

Quality of Service. Legal provisions falling under this head are closely related to the topics discussed in the section immediately preceding. Under the head of equipment, however, physical conditions were chiefly considered in their bearing upon safety in travel. Although numerous laws on this subject have been enacted, on the whole the physical side of railway transportation has

1 In addition to those above mentioned the following states have fairly complete statutory provisions on these subjects: Illinois, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Nebraska, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, South Carolina, Vermont. Other states, of which the laws are less complete or practically wanting, are: Arizona, Idaho, Kansas, Louisiana, Maryland, Montana, Nevada, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, Wisconsin, New York.

2 Among the commissions that have power to investigate accidents are those of Massachusetts, Connecticut, Maine, New Hampshire, Rhode Island, New York, Ohio, North Carolina, and Virginia.

presented fewer difficulties from the point of view of regulation and control than many others; because the immediate self-interest of railway companies made the prevention of accidents necessary, and for this reason uninterrupted progress has been made in the application of those appliances which make modern railway travel so very safe to passengers and constantly less and less dangerous to employees. Recent laws compelling the introduction of automatic couplers and air brakes illustrate this sufficiently. In the present paragraphs relatively little attention will be paid to physical conditions. These will be assumed; but the question that directly concerns us here is that of state influence on the operation of trains when they have once been put into service.

Train Service. - The general laws of nearly all the states contain a more or less definite provision to the effect that trains shall be run "at regular times" (to use the phrase of New York), that bulletin boards shall be put up, and that trains running on other than schedule time shall be duly announced on these boards. About one-fourth of the states, however, contain more definite provisions, wider in their scope, and looking toward a more direct control of the train service. In Alabama trains may be made to stop at all stations advertised, and at county seats. Under certain conditions double-deck cars must be provided, and the speed of trains in cities is regulated. On petition of fifty citizens every train must stop in the city of the

petitioners, according to the laws of Arkansas; bulletin boards must be provided and trains run at regular intervals; while provisions similar to those of Alabama govern the use of double-deck cars. In California the railway company may regulate the number and frequency of trains, subject to the legislature. Colorado laws compel trains to stop in cities, and give railway companies the power to designate loading points. At these points cars shall be furnished in proportion to need; and, in case of failure on the part of the railway company to provide them, for one reason or another, an appeal may be taken to the railway commission. The laws of Connecticut are more detailed on this topic than those of nearly all the other states. On petition of twenty citizens the railway commission may order trains to stop whenever they pass within one and one-half miles from a village; stations may be established on petition, and the same are not to be discontinued without the assent of the commission. Railway companies are obliged to make proper connections. The Florida railway commission has power to establish train schedules. In Minnesota, in case a sufficient number of cars cannot be provided for all applicants, the same shall be distributed proportionately among them. North Dakota railways are by law compelled to run one train each way on each week-day. Power to control time tables, and consequently the frequency of trains, is given to the South Carolina commission. Up to 1899 the laws of Texas provided for regu