The next most serious cause of death to "others" was being run over at highway crossings. This resulted in the death of twenty-eight and injury to forty-four persons as against thirty-two deaths and fifty-three injuries in 1885. Of these, seven deaths and twentytwo injuries were at crossings protected by gates or flagmen, and were almost invariably in consequence of the want of caution of the highway travelers. Still the penalty of death for a slight want of caution is severe.

Were it the law that as a rule railroads should pass over or under highways, and should only be permitted to cross at grade by a special order of court, these constantly recurring casualties would be greatly reduced, if not entirely done away with. The Board has recommended to three successive Legislatures an amendment of the present law requiring newly constructed railroads to observe such a rule. The bill has failed in every case.

To compel existing railroads to re-construct all their highway crossings would be impracticable at present, in consequence of the

expense.

Another embarrassment results from the fact that highway commissioners are constantly opening new highways across railroads at grade. This they have the power to do under the present law. The Board is of the opinion that this law should be amended by inserting a provision that no new highway should be opened at grade across a railroad track except by order of court.

A statute was enacted by the Legislature of 1884 (chapter 439), resulting from a recommendation of the Board providing that:

"SECTION 3. At any point where a street, highway, turnpike, plankroad or traveled way is crossed at the same level by a railroad, or at any point where a horse railroad is crossed by a steam railroad, the supreme court or county court may, upon the application of the local authorities and upon ten days' notice to the railroad corporation whose road so crosses, order that a flagman be stationed at such point, or that gates shall be erected across such street, highway, turnpike or plankroad, and that a person be stationed to open and close such gates when an engine or train passes, or make such other order respecting the same as it deems proper. Such order shall only be made after the refusal or neglect of such corporation to station such flagman or erect such gates after having been requested so to do by such local authorities."

Action is frequently taken under the statutes to protect grade crossings. Notwithstanding its existence, however, the Board receives more complaints from this than any other one cause.

The Board concludes its discussion upon accidents by calling at

tention to the great pains it is taking to diminish the number thereof and refers again to its previous annual reports and particularly to accident investigations and inquiries. (P. 141, appendix.)

PHYSICAL CONDITION OF RAILROADS.

It is with confidence the Board can report that the physical condition of railroads has continued to improve, as a whole, within the

last year.

During the period of extreme business depression railroad prop. erty was "skimped" more than it should have been. This is particularly noticeable in the condition of those corporations that have gone through foreclosure of mortgage. The average receiver, through no fault of his own probably, finds it impossible to spend any more money on his road than absolutely necessary to keep trains running. The Board maintains its system of inspections, however, and persistently urges upon railroad authorities to remedy the defects pointed out, with most beneficial effect. Your attention is called to the inspection reports (pages 186-236 of the appendix,) and also to the remarks on this subject in the last annual report. (Page XXIII.)

The important work inaugurated by the Board in 1884, with regard to the inspection and calculation of the strains on bridges has nearly reached a conclusion. It expects to transmit a supplementary report on this subject to your honorable body somewhat later in the session. The work can be best understood by repeating the explanation made in the Second Annual Report, which is, therefore, again given:

INSPECTION OF BRIDGES.

"To this subject the Board has given particular attention and, it believes, with much benefit to the State and to railroads. The desirability of some form of State supervision of bridges has long been recognized by those whose professional duties made them familiar with the many dangerous structures that have been built and allowed to remain not only on railroads but on highways. **** "The accurate calculation of the strains on the different members of a bridge or "truss" is a matter requiring technical education. It is very rarely possessed by bridge foremen and carpenters. Familiarity with the theory of mechanics and a considerable knowledge of mathematics are prerequisites. It was soon made evident to the Board that on many of the railroads of the State there had been no competent calculation of the strains on the bridges for many years, if at all. Two failures of bridges during a year, within the State,

attended with serious loss of life, amply justify the Board in the

action it has taken.

"On the 28th of January, 1884, the following circular was issued: "SIR-Will you please send to this Board, drawings or tracings of all the truss bridges on the lines owned, leased or operated by your road, numbering the same in consecutive order, stating the location of each, and the time when built. The Board desires such drawings and diagrams as will show the construction of the various members of the bridges, with the dimensions of the same; also the floor system adopted.

"It also desires a strain sheet to accompany each drawing, showing the strain on each member produced by the maximum moving load allowed upon the bridge, together with the weight of the superstruc

ture.

"The Board also desires a plan of the general standard of floor system adopted, whether for large or small openings.

"The Board recommend a floor system for all openings, including cattle-guards, strong enough to support a derailed truck, with guard-rails to guide the wheels of the same in such contingency.

"Considerable objection was raised by some of the roads to conforming to the above. They have all done so, however, or are doing so. The result is that managers are finding weak places in their bridges of which they had no idea before. The mere fact that a strain-sheet has to be calculated by some one competent to do it, brings to their attention defects of which they might have remained in ignorance until a disaster had given them a terrible awakening. In many cases the bridges are strengthened before the drawings and strainsheets are sent in to this office. As soon after receipt as possible, they are carefully gone over and re-calculated by a competent bridge engineer in the employ of the Board, and, when occasion requires, by one of the Commissioners. When any defect is discovered, the railroad company is immediately notified and required to show cause why the bridge should not be rebuilt or strengthened so as to be brought within safety limits. Cases are constantly occurring, particularly in old bridges, where the iron in the suspension rods is strained to 20,000 pounds and more to the square inch, and where three rods constitute the member, and there is no certainty that the adjustment is such that each rod is doing its share of the work.

"The Board accepts the weight of the maximum rolling load as furnished by the road, unless it is obvious that it is too light, in which case it assumes a locomotive weighing 80,000 pounds, on four drivers, with fourteen feet nine inches wheel base, a tender weighing 48,000 pounds, followed by a load of 2,240 pounds to the foot of track, so placed as to induce a maximum strain on web members. In some cases an average rolling load of 3,000 pounds to the foot is given by the roads, which induces strains on long spans somewhat in excess of the above assumption. The Board requires that iron should not be strained to a greater extent than 10,000 pounds, and wood 800 pounds in tension; nor greater than 10,000 pounds or 800 pounds

in compression, diminishing, however, as the length of the member increases in proportion to its diameter in accordance with well-recognized formulæ. Various other requirements are insisted upon with regard to the details of construction, which it is not necessary to set forth here, but which are universally agreed upon by competent engineers as proper and necessary for safety.

The necessity of this work is particularly brought about by reason of the great increase in the weight of rolling stock within the last few years. There are many bridges still standing, built when the maximum weight of locomotive and tender was fifty-five tons, and the maximum weight of a freight car, with its load, was nineteen tons. Locomotives with tender frequently now weigh eighty-seven tons, and freight cars with their loads thirty-five tons.

In the early days of bridge building, particularly of iron bridges, it was the habit to construct trusses of complicated form, the accurate calculation of the strains on which it is very difficult, and in some cases impossible, to determine. An approximation close enough for practical purposes is always reached however. A better practice now prevails, and trusses of simple form, admitting of no ambiguity, are alone accepted by the best engineers. In exceptional cases, complex trusses have to be resorted to, but they are avoided as much as possible.

"As can be well imagined, there is an immense amount of this work to do, there being about 3,500 bridges in the State. The Board trusts, however, within the next year, to have an accurate record of the dimensions and strain brought on every member of every truss bridge in the State; in no other State has this, as yet, been done.

"As stated in the last annual report, however, it is not proposed to relieve railroads or lead them to suppose they are relieved of the responsibility to maintain safe structures now resting upon them. It would seem better to hold them to an undivided responsiblity and have the State inspection merely such as to see that they had fulfilled their duties." "

The attention of railroad managers is drawn to the fact that on some railroads of the country, rolling loads from cars alone are reaching 3,600 pounds per running foot. These are much heavier loads than those upon which the calculations of the Board have been made. Care should be taken before permitting such trains to run, to ascertain if the bridges are capable of bearing them.

VENTILATION.

The Board admits with regret that it has been greatly discouraged in its efforts to induce railroad authorities to adopt better methods of heating and ventilating passenger cars. The ignorance and indifference that prevails upon the subject is astonishing. The

C

Board has repeatedly pointed out the desirability and practicability of better methods, but so far without avail.

Ventilation affects not only the comfort but the health of every traveler, and in case of accident the methods of heating may become a matter of supreme importance.

Your attention is called to the remarks on this subject in the last annual report (P. XXIV), and to the report of the inspector (P. 238 of the appendix).

The recent disaster at Rio, on the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul railroad, has again called public attention sharply to the method of heating cars. On that occasion the train ran off the track through a misplaced stub switch. A passenger coach was jammed between the cars in front and rear, caught fire from the stove, and seventeen persons were burned to death before they could be rescued the heat being so intense.

Except for the matter of expense there is probably no reason why the furnace should not be suspended under and outside the car, as is now done on some roads. Fresh air can be introduced by movement of the train, heated and thence transmitted through flues in the car, in the manner described in the report above quoted.

The Board is of the opinion that this is a better method than any depending upon steam from the locomotive. The latter necessarily deprives the locomotive of needed power and affords no means of ventilation, besides it being very difficult to make the steam connections. The Board will continue its efforts to secure better methods of heating and ventilation and trusts it will receive more co-operation from the railroads and the public.

UNIFORMITY OF RULES ANd Signals.

The Board has frequently drawn attention to the desirability of the adoption of a uniform code of rules, signals, standard measurements, etc., to prevent confusion and danger and to secure greater efficiency and economy in the operation of railroads. (See 1st Ann. Report, page 38; 2nd Ann. Report, page XXIV.) The subjects are receiving more and more attention from the various organized bodies representing the different departments of railroad management, such as the Master Car Builders' Association, Car Accountants' Association, Master Mechanics' Association, Time Convention., etc. In 1884 a uniform code of signals was recommended by the latter organization, which has been adopted by eighty-six per cent of the railroads reporting thereto. A uniform code of rules has also been