which also is from the Greek, and signifies king. Originally these words meant simply a single ruler. But as unlimited

power in the hands of one man has been so generally abused, these words have come to be used in an odious sense. They are now applied, for the most part, to rulers who exercise authority over their subjects with severity: and any government so administered as to oppress the people, is said to be despotic, or tyrannical. In an absolute despotism, the monarch has entire control over his subjects. They have no law but the will of the ruler, who has at command a large force of armed men to keep his people in subjection. The governments of many of the nations of Europe and Asia have always been of this description. Changes in some of them have occasionally taken place, but without any material improvement in the condition of the people.

§ 6. Governments called aristocracies have also existed; though no government, properly so called, is believed to exist at the present time. The word aristocracy is from the Greek words, aristos, best, and kratos, power, or krateo, to govern; and means a government of the best. Hence it has been used to designate a government in which the supreme power is in the hands of a few persons of rank and wealth. The word aristocracy is also used for the nobility of a country under a monarchical government. Nobles are persons of rank above the common people, and bear some title of honor. The titles of the English nobility are those of duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron. These titles are hereditary, being derived from birth. In some cases they are conferred upon persons by the king.

§ 7. Another form of government is a democracy. This word also is from the Greek: demos, the people, and krateo, to govern, or kratos, power; and signifies a government of the people. In a government purely democratic, the great body of freemen meet in one assembly to make laws, and to transact the public business. In ancient Greece there were a few governments of this kind; but they necessarily comprised small territories, scarcely more than a single town. All the citizens of a large community could not meet in a single assembly.

§ 8. The form of government in this country is different from all those which have been described. It is republican. A republic is a government in which the people enjoy com

mon rights and privileges. Hence the name of commonwealth is sometimes applied to a republic; as a thing is said to be common when it is enjoyed by persons in general. Sometimes this name is given to a state of this Union, as, the commonwealth of Massachusetts;" the " commonwealth of Pennsylvania." Every state in the Union is a republic.

§ 9. In a republic, the political power is with the people, as in a democracy. The words republic and democracy have, therefore, nearly the same meaning. Our government, though democratic, is not such a democracy as has been described. In a republic like ours, the laws, instead of being made by the people in a body, as in a pure democracy, are made by a small number of men called representatives, who are chosen by the people for that purpose.

§ 10. The government of this country is therefore a representative government, or a representative democracy; or it may with propriety be called a democratic republic. A representative is a person chosen or employed by others to make known their wishes, and to transact their business. He is therefore an agent. The word agent, however, more frequently denotes a person intrusted with the private business. of another; the term representative is generally used to designate one who is chosen to assist in enacting laws.

§ 11. Although most of the powers of government in this country are exercised by representatives, instead of the people in person, as in a simple democracy, our government is equally free, because the power to govern is derived from the people, and the government is such as they have chosen for themselves.

CHAPTER IV.

GOVERNMENTS OF RUSSIA, TURKEY, SPAIN, DENMARK.

§ 1. HAVING defined the different forms of government, as distinguished by the general names of monarchy, aristocracy, democracy, and republic, we proceed to give a description of the governments of some of the principal nations of

Europe and America, in which these several principles are illustrated. From this description it will appear, that very few of these governments are either wholly monarchical, aristocratical, or democratic; but that, in most of them, some or all of these several principles are combined.

§ 2. Of the class of monarchies called absolute or despotic, the government of Russia is one. The power of the emperor, or czar, is hereditary. The people have no part in the government, but are subject to the will of the sovereign. The monarch can make laws and repeal them at pleasure. He can make war or peace; raise armies and levy taxes; and he confers privileges and titles of honor upon whomsoever he pleases. He commands the nobles, and has their property directly or indirectly at his disposal. He is restrained, however, in the severity of his rule, by the fear of forfeiting his life, as was the case of one of his predecessors. The autocrat, (as he is sometimes called,) also has control of ecclesiastical matters. He must be of the Greek religion. § 3. In the government of an empire so extensive, there must be, as in other governments, several departments, and a large number of officers intrusted with some powers; but as they receive their appointment, directly or indirectly, from the emperor himself, and hold their offices at his pleasure, they have no material check upon his power. He has, for example, a directing senate, of sixty-two members, divided into departments; but the members, being nominated by the monarch, and subject to his will, they serve little other purpose than that of promulgating his ukases, or decrees. The laws of an absolute ruler are usually called edicts, decrees, or ordinances.

§ 4. The great body of the nation is divided into the two extreme classes of nobles and slaves; the middle classes being less numerous. Many of the Russian nobles boast of high birth. The fortunes of some of them are enormous. Their estates are estimated, not so much by the amount of their lands and rents, as by the number of slaves. The head of a certain family, reckoned the richest, is said to have owned 125,000! The slaves form the great mass of the people. They have no political rights. They are subject to the will of their masters, and may be scourged at pleasure by their masters, who are not brought to justice for excessive severity, unless death be produced within

twenty-four hours. All the profits earned by the slave belong to the master; though it is not uncommon for the master to allow the slave a proportion.

§ 5. There are courts of justice in Russia; but they are too liable to be corrupted to administer justice at all times impartially. As a punishment, the knout is administered even to nobles of the highest rank who may have displeased their sovereign. The knout is a leather strap, with which stripes are inflicted upon the bare back! The sovereign power, however, is said to be exercised at present with considerable mildness; and the condition of the people is improving.

§ 6. The Turkish monarchy is still more despotic than that of Russia. All departments of the government, civil, military, and religious, are under the control of one man, called sultan, or grand seignior. The powers of government, however, instead of being exercised by the monarch himself, are devolved upon the vizier, the chief magistrate of state, assisted by a council of men called the divan. The vizier appoints all civil and military officers; and he may put to death all who oppose his measures. In war he commands the army in person, leaving at court in his absence a pacha, (pashaw.)

§ 7. The subjects of the sultan are taught to believe that their sovereign reigns by divine commission; that is, that he derives his right to rule from the Supreme Ruler of the world; and that nothing which he can do is morally wrong. Hence, they regard submission to their master as a religious duty. They consider him to be the proprietor of all the lands in his dominions, except such as are dedicated to pious uses. The koran is the fundamental law of the empire. The koran or alcoran is the Mohammedan book of faith written by Mohammed, or Mahomet.

§ 8. Of the absolute governments of Europe, the two which have been described are the most despotic, and have perhaps undergone the least change. Property and life, however, though not protected by written constitutions and laws in which the people have a voice, are tolerably secure ; the ruler being restrained in the exercise of his power through fear of provoking his subjects to rebellion. Still, we can account for the abject submission of the people, only by supposing them to be under the influence of religious

fear or superstition, and too ignorant to know that they can be in a better condition.

§ 9. The kingdom of Spain is a hereditary monarchy, and is usually called a despotism. Its government, in form, somewhat resembles a limited monarchy, there being a legislature to assist in making the laws; but it is, in effect, perhaps, the most despotic of any in Europe, except those of Russia and Turkey.

§ 10. The legislature, called the cortes, consists of two houses, the peers and the deputies. The house of peers is an aristocratic body, composed in part of hereditary members, and in part of members named by the king for life; thus being wholly independent of the people. The deputies are elected by a college of electors, who are chosen by the principal citizens; the great body of the people having no voice in the election, and consequently no representation in the legislature. A legislature thus constituted, must be presumed to have a stronger sympathy with the sovereign than with the people. As every measure proposed by the cortes must receive the monarch's sanction before it can become a law; and as the principal officers derive their authority from him, and are under his direction; there can be little restraint upon absolute power.

§ 11. The kingdom of Denmark is an absolute monarchy, and the crown is hereditary. The Danish kings, though invested with supreme power, have exercised their authority with mildness. The nobles are not numerous, consisting only of one duke, nineteen counts, and twelve barons. The king himself presides at the supreme national tribunal. The great body of the people were not long since in a state of personal slavery. Their condition, though still poor and depressed, is improving.