§ 6. The council was composed of a small number of men, also appointed by the king, and subject to his pleasure. This body constituted one branch of the legislature. The judges and magistrates, and other officers, were appointed by the governors or by the king, or other persons who appointed the governors.

§ 7. Hence it appears that only one branch of the lawmaking power was chosen by the people, while the other two, the governor and council, were appointed by the king, or were subject to him. And as every measure proposed by the representatives required the concurrence of the governor and council, just and necessary laws were often denied the people. Besides, a measure thus concurred in, must be sent to England for the approval of the king before it could become a law.

§ 8. In a few of the colonies, however, the people enjoyed greater political privileges. In Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut, for many years before the revolution, they elected their governors and both houses of the legislature. Yet even in these colonies, no laws might be enacted that were contrary to the laws of England. And the privileges which the people enjoyed were granted by the king, and might be taken away from them at his plea

sure.

§ 9. Not only were the colonists denied the benefits of liberal and just legislation at home; many of the laws enacted by parliament and approved by the king, were highly oppressive. These laws were designed to secure to Great Britain exclusively the benefit of the trade of the col onies. A law was enacted declaring that no goods should be imported into the colonies but in English vessels. If brought in other vessels, both the goods and the vessels were to be forfeited to the British government. Another law required such articles produced here as England wanted, to be transported to that country, and to other countries belonging to Great Britain. The colonists were permitted to ship to foreign markets such products only as English merchants did not want. They were prohibited from selling abroad any wool, yarn, or woolen manufactured goods. Another law declared that no iron wares of any kind should be manufactured in the plantations.

§ 10. Thus was it attempted to suppress manufactures in

the colonies. In short, it was the policy of the British government to compel the colonists to buy of England all the goods they wanted which they did not themselves produce, and to sell to England the surplus productions of the colonies. For this purpose, heavy duties were laid upon goods imported into the colonies from other countries than Great Britain and her possessions. These duties were taxes levied upon goods brought into the colonies from abroad, and were collected by officers here from persons importing the goods.

§ 11. The nature and effects of these duties will more plainly appear to the young reader from the following facts: -The colonists traded with the West India islands. Some of these islands belonged to France, some to Spain, others to Great Britain. Now to prevent the colonists from buying goods at the French and Spanish Islands, parliament enacted a law compelling them to pay high duties on the molasses, sugar, and other articles from these islands.

§ 12. Great Britain did not stop here. Not satisfied with these acts by which English traders had been enabled to enrich themselves, parliament claimed the right to tax the colonies"in all cases whatsoever;" and an act was passed accordingly, laying duties upon all tea, glass, paper, and painters' colors, imported into the colonies; and the money thus collected was put into the British treasury. The colonists remonstrated against these unjust laws. Petitions were sent to the king, and memorials to both houses of parliament, praying that these laws might be repealed, but in vain. At length, the colonists resolving no longer to submit to such laws, and the British government attempting to enforce them, a war between the two countries was the consequence.

§ 13. The war commenced in 1775. On the 4th of July, 1776, the congress declared the colonies to be free and independent states. Congress was a kind of legislative body, composed of a few delegates or representatives from each of the several colonies. A description of this congress will be given in another part of this work; also the declaration of independence, with the names of the men who signed it. After a severe struggle of about seven years, the war was ended, and Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the states. This change in our relations with that

country, and the establishment of independent governments in the states, is called the American Revolution.

§ 14. Since the states declared themselves independent, one after another has changed its government, until all of the original thirteen have adopted new constitutions. During this period, eighteen new states have been admitted into the Union, making the present number thirty-one. Three others, Minnesota, Kansas, and Oregon, are now (1858) waiting for admission, and will soon be added to the number.

STATE GOVERNMENTS

CHAPTER XI.

BY WHOM POLITICAL POWER IS EXERCISED IN THE STATES OF THIS UNION.

§ 1. THE first act of political power is, as we have seen, the establishment of a constitution, or form of government. The next is the election of officers to administer the government. But prior to the exercise of this power, it must be determined to whom it shall be intrusted.

§ 2. In speaking of the people as acting politically, we do not mean all persons; but such only as are entitled by the constitution to vote at elections. It is the common opinion, that the duties which both nature and the custom of civilized countries have assigned to females, are such as to render it improper for them to take an active part in public affairs. Nor ought males to be permitted to do so, until they shall have had time to acquire the requisite knowledge and judgment to exercise power discreetly. And that they may act independently, they ought to have attained the age and condition of freemen. None, therefore, but free male citizens of the age of twenty-one years, are allowed to vote at elections.

§ 3. That a man may vote understandingly, he ought also to have resided long enough in the state to become acquainted with its government and laws, and with its citizens, from whom he is to select those for whom he is to vote. All our state constitutions require, as one of the qualifications of every elector, that he shall have resided in the state for a specified period of time; which period is not the same in all the states, varying in the different states from three months to two years. In most of the states, he must also have resided for some months in the county, and be a resident of the town in which he offers to vote.

§ 4. Under the early constitutions of the old states, the right of voting, otherwise called the right of suffrage, and the elective franchise, was restricted to those who owned property, or paid rent or taxes to a certain amount. In the election of the higher state officers, freeholders only were entitled to vote. A freeholder is an owner of real estate, that is, property in lands, which he may hold in his own right and transmit to his heirs. In the constitutions of the newer states, the possession of property has not been made a qualification of an elector; and in the amended constitutions of the old states this restriction upon the elective franchise has been removed, until it has nearly ceased to exist in the United States. The right of voting is now enjoyed by all independent white male citizens, with few exceptions, in almost every state of the Union.

§ 5. All male citizens, as the term is here used, does not mean every man twenty-one years of age. Foreigners, or aliens, are not in law called citizens, nor entitled to the political privileges enjoyed by persons born in this country. Their knowledge of our government is deemed to be too limited to qualify them immediately for the proper exercise of political power; nor is it presumed that they will feel a sufficient interest in our government until they shall have become permanently settled in this country. A way is provided by which, after a residence here for a term of years, they may be admitted to all the privileges of native citizens. Their becoming thus invested with the rights of natural born citizens, is called being naturalized. (See Naturalization.)

§ 6. Also persons convicted of certain infamous crimes are denied the privilege of voting thereafter at elections.

unless they have been pardoned before the expiration of the term for which they were sentenced to be imprisoned, or unless the disqualification be removed in some other way prescribed by law. Paupers, idiots, and insane persons, are in some state constitutions expressly disqualified.

§ 7. It will be seen by reference to the several state constitutions, that "white male citizens" only are mentioned as entitled to the right of suffrage, in most of the states. In the New England states, except Connecticut, there is no exclusion of colored citizens from the right of voting. And in New York, male citizens of color owning a freehold estate of the value of $250, are qualified electors. The justice or propriety of excluding persons of color from a participation in the government, has always been questioned, and has been the subject of much discussion in the several state conventions by which the constitutions have been framed, as well as by the people at large. But hitherto, attempts to enfranchise colored citizens have generally proved unsuccessful.

CHAPTER XII

ELECTIONS.

§ 1. ELECTIONS are annually held in each state for electing officers to serve in the several administrations of state, counties, and towns. Town meetings for the election of town officers are usually held in or near the months of March and April. Most officers elected by the people, other than town officers, are chosen at the general state election, which, in most of the states, is held in the month of October or November.

§ 2. Elections are conducted by persons designated by law, or chosen by the electors of the towns for that purpose. It is their duty to see that order is preserved, and that the business at elections is properly done. They are usually called judges of elections, or inspectors of elections. Persons also, (usually two,) are appointed to serve as clerks. Each clerk keeps a list of the names of the electors voting