Countries. Belgium, 1908. Norway, 1909. Sweden, 1909. Votes. Representatives. 483,000 42 317,000 86 339,000 99,000 24 100,000 7 82,000 7 90,000 75,000 36 40,000 1 conducting campaigns, while main- | eral other countries and its repretaining their autonomy for other sentation in their parliaments: purposes. In 1906 this coalition polled 323,000 votes and elected thirty members of Parliament, to whom three more were added in byelections. In 1910 the Labor Party's vote rose to 506,000, but only twentyeight of its candidates were successful. These, with twelve other tradeunion candidates, constitute the Labor group in the present Parliament. At its convention in 1908 the Labor Party formally declared for the Socialist ideal. Candidates of the Independent Labor Party, which is the most clearly socialistic part of this combination, received 76,000 votes in 1906 and 92,000 in 1910. The Social Democratic Party, which is not included in the Labor Party, polled 30,000 votes in 1906 and 33,000 in 1910. Four distinct legislative victories have been won since 1906, as follows: The Trades Disputes Act, reversing the judicial decisions of 1903 and protecting union treasuries from being levied upon by employers for damages incurred in strikes and boycotts: revision and improvement of the Workingmen's Compensation Act; the establishment of old-age pensions; and an act permitting local authorities to provide meals for schoolchildren. Counting the smaller contingents from Hungary, Roumania, Bulgaria, Servia, Greece, Portugal, Canada, Chile, Argentina, Australia, New Zealand, Japan, and South Africa, the Socialist voters of the world number more than 8,000,000. The adult male adherents of the movement who are disfranchised in various countries are nearly as numerous. Together, they constitute fully one tenth of the adult male population of the civilized world. Only within the last five years has the movement begun to get a foothold in China, India, Persia, Turkey, Mexico, and South America. Socialism in 1910.-In April, 1910, the Socialists carried the city of Milwaukee, electing the mayor (Emil Seidel), controller, treasurer, city attorney, and twenty-one of the thirtyfive aldermen. This administration is still too young to give an account of its achievements, but its advent has greatly strengthened the movement throughout the country. In the United States Socialism was practically confined to certain foreign elements until the industrial depression of 1893. The Socialist Labor Party first entered a national election in 1888, polling 2,000 votes. By 1898 this number had grown to In May the Socialist Party held a 87.000. A schism took place about national convention at Chicago to this time, and since 1900 there have perfect its organization and methods existed two parties-the Socialist of action and consider special quesLabor Party, led by Daniel DeLeon, tions, such as immigration, relation whose vote had dwindled to 32,000 in of the party to labor unions, its at1908, and the Socialist Party, among titude on questions affecting the inwhose leaders are Eugene V. Debs, terests of farmers, and propaganda Victor L. Berger, Morris Hillquit, and of Socialism among women. A M. Simons, and which cast 424,000 secretary's report showed that the votes in that year. The Socialist organization then had over 50,000 Party has elected members of the members, paying dues of twenty legislatures of Massachusetts and cents a month, and that its principles Wisconsin and of several city coun- were supported by sixty-two periodcils. Its National Secretary, J. Mah-icals, including nine dailies-three lon Barnes, has headquarters at Chicago. The following table summarizes the voting strength of Socialism in sev The English, two German, two Bohemian, one Polish, and one Jewish. The state and congressional elections held on Nov. 8th gave results tag. This campaign has involve tensive strikes in various indu the distribution of enormous tities of literature, and the hold popular demonstrations in al large cities, in some of which a lin more than 100,000 men ma and met in the public squares fiance of police prohibitions. party expects to make such st gains at the approaching Reic elections (which are held under hood suffrage with direct votin will compel the government to cede a thorough reform of the sian system. The national congress of the man Social Democratic Party, h Magdeburg in Sept., was marke a heated controversy over the a of the Social Democratic membe the Baden Landtag, who had fo a coalition with the Liberals voted for the budget in consider of promised support for social re legislation. Some other South man delegates justified this co but the party congress by a thirds vote censured it and dec that in future such an act woul tail expulsion from the party. ] time it was feared that the S German members would secede, the habit of solidarity prevailed a split was averted. The conti increase in the cost of living, th tacks directed by employers' ass tions against trade unions, and arrogant utterances of the Kaise all contributing to strengthen So ism in Germany. The party's or ized dues paying membership numbers 720,000, including 8 women. evil; promotion of international solidarity in the labor unions; coöperative societies and methods by which they may be made most serviceable to the working class and the Socialist movement. At the same time and place was held the second International Socialist Women's Congress, attended by 200 delegates from twenty countries, whose most important act was a decision that Socialists should not under any circumstances support any measure extending the franchise to a part of the female sex under a property qualification, but should stand firmly for equal suffrage for all men and women. Bibliography. - Among the hundreds of Socialist books and books about Socialism, the student will find it best to begin by consulting the following, in the order named: Morris Hillquit, Socialism in Theory and Practice, 1909, and History of Socialism in the United States, 1910; John Spargo, Socialism, 1909; H. M. Hyndman, Economics of Socialism, 1896; Frederick Engels, Socialism, Utopian and Scientific, 1892; Karl Kautsky, The Social Revolution, 1903; Thomas Kirkup, History of Socialism, 1906; and Robert Hunter, Socialists at Work, 1908. ANARCHISM dividual may recognize as proceeding en Anarchists differ considerably in their conception of the ideal society and in their modes of action. They may be grouped under two heads. There are the Individualist Anarchists or "Philosophical Anarchists," as they sometimes prefer to be called, such as the Englishman Auberon Herbert and the American Benjamin Tucker, who represent the extreme development of the theories of Rousseau, Thomas Jefferson, and Herbert Spencer. In general, these are tirely unorganized, repudiate the use of violence, and have but little influence. On the other side are the Communist Anarchists. Their history begins with Pierre Joseph Proudhon (1809-65), and Michael Bakunin (1814-76), and their foremost living representative is Peter Kropotkin (born in 1842), who is also well known as a writer on geography, ethnology, and certain phases of evolution. The Communist Anarchists look for the establishment of a social order based on the voluntary organization of individuals into small local groups, conducting production by joint labor and sharing the product among the members either according to the bor performed by each or according to the needs of each; these groups entering into voluntary agreements with each other for the exchange of products and for carrying on undertakings too large for single groups to handle; but without any compulsory authority either among or within the groups, the mutual good will of individuals and their desire for the approval of their fellows being thought sufficient to maintain harmonious coöperative effort for the benefit of all. It is a vulgar mistake to suppose that Anarchism is a more radical species of Socialism. In fact, they are diametrically opposed in theory and almost universally hostile in practice. Socialists regard political institutions as a normal phenomenon of economic evolution, and seek by political action to transform the state into an agency for the democratic administration of socialized industry. Anarchists, on the contrary, look upon state and church as twin fundamental evils, resulting from ignorance and imposture, and forming the basis for economic Some Anarchists have advocated oppression. By a direct attack upon and some have practiced the propwhat they regard as political and re-aganda of deed"-that is, political ligious superstition, and sometimes al- assassination considered as a demonso by the use of physical force, they stration of defiance to constituted seek to eliminate religion and abolish authority and as a means of intimidatthe state, and to establish the com- ing and disorganizing the governing plete emancipation of every individual classes. Others, in both schools of from all legal authority and from all Anarchism, deprecate such action as ethical codes except such as each in- being both cruel and futile. 66 They The most noteworthy activity Anarchists during the last yea been the extension of the propa of Francisco Ferrer, the Spanis archist and Freethinker, who wa under martial law on Oct. 13, Experience shows that repr measures tend to promote rather to check the growth of Anarchis has the least influence and ass the mildest forms in those cou and at those times when civil 1 are most scrupulously respected litical liberty most widely exte and the labor movement most ous. Bibliography.-E. V. Zenker's archism: A Criticism and a His 1897, gives a fairly impartial ac of the theory and movement. Socialist criticism of Anarchism be found in Marx's The Miser Philosophy, and George Plecha Socialism and Anarchism. The important Anarchist books are th lowing: Proudhon, What Is Prop 1840, and The Philosophy of M 1846; Stirner, The Ego and His 1845; Bakunin, God and the S Kropotkin, The Conquest of B and Modern Science and Anarch Tucker, Instead of a Book. XXVII. PSYCHOLOGY AND PHILOSOPHY * J. MARK BALDWIN PSYCHOLOGY and Margulis, is to be found in the Psychological Bulletin, vi, 1909. An able new Textbook of Experimental Psychology (1909) is by C. S. Myers. Psychology has in recent years | mental conditions. A detailed report shown the influence of two great of the method and results, by Yerkes movements which dominated the thought of the late nineteenth century. It has become experimental or "positive," and naturalistic or evolutionistic. The former character has shown itself in the rise of experimental and physiological psychology, the latter in that of genetic and social psychology. The two formerexperimental and physiological psychology-reached their maturity a decade ago, and very recent work has been principally devoted to problems of detail. Genetic Psychology. The second great influence, that of evolution, has shown itself in the striking development of genetic psychology; especially, more recently, in researches on animals and lower forms of life. The same impulse came to its own ten years earlier in the varied work on young children. In the United States, G. S. Hall (see the successive volumes of the Pedagogical Seminary), and Baldwin (Mental Development in the Child and the Race, third edition, 1906) were early workers. A great mass of detailed facts of the child's growth were gathered, and general principles of development were sketched which have guided later investigation on adults and animals. The principle of "trial and error," according to which all acquisition or learning by the child comes through a series of more or less random and Experimental Psychology.-The most important new departure in experimental psychology proper, has been perhaps the attempt to apply experiment to certain of the higher processes, such as attention and thought. Résumés of results are to be found in the books of Titchener (Elementary Psychology of Feeling and Attention, 1908, and Experimental Psychology of the Thought Processes, 1909). In physiological psychology-the study of the mind through modifications of physiolog- | excessive discharges, directed toward ical processes-the method of Pavlof has excited discussion. It consists in observing variations in the salivary secretions of animals under varied The nature of these subjects is such that it is impossible to report them strictly by years, except in the most mechanical and unintelligent fashion. Philosophical ideas do not show their value generally in one year or in two. A background of description of tendencies and schools is necessary to the carrying out of the purpose of this publication, and I accordingly speak in this paper of "recent" work-giving dates as far as possible, of course-rather than of the work of 1910 only. the desired goal, by which "happy hits " are achieved and retained-this principle was stated and enforced by the latter writer, who utilized and criticised the theories of Spencer and Bain. The principle of imitation also received emphasis (as well by J. Royce) and its very great importance in mental development was pointed out. James dwelt upon the importance of habit (Talks to Teachers on Psychology, 1899). Groos (The Play of Animals and The Play of Man, both in English translation) published a theory of play-considering it as a function of practice in the animal's habits of life-which by com |