attained in freighting is wonderful, both inland and at sea, and the provisions sent to Europe are worth all they cost to the ultimate consumers.

The weekly export of general merchandisegrain and provisions being the chief articles-is now about 10 millions of dollars in value at the of New York alone, and this average has port been maintained now for several months. The highest shipment on a single day was 1,254,500 bushels of grain, wheat, and corn-a quantity nearly approached on one or two other days, and likely again to be reached at any time.

It will be seen by these illustrations that commerce in general has assumed proportions which strikingly illustrate the greater productive capacity of the present age, and the efficiency of all the appliances of business. It could not exist if agricultural production remained where it was twenty-five years ago, nor if railroads, elevators, and steamships were the same as then. It could not supply the necessities of nations with any less efficient machinery than that now in use, and we pass on to these changes and improvements in a great degree unconscious of the magnitude of the general movement.

The following table, giving the aggregate values of merchandise imported into and exported from the United States for ten years, will show the rapid increase now taking place,—the years ending June 30 in each case:

For the last year-1879-80-the importation of a large amount of gold adds an unusual value to the imports, the merchandise account being imports $667,885,565, and the exports $835,793,924. The gold and silver coin imported reached the large sum of $93,034,310; the gold and silver exports being $17,142,919. For other years of the table there was little difference between the exports and imports of gold.

This period embraces at least one of the complete cycles of foreign trade characteristic of this country in the great increase of business of 1872 and 1873, followed by the depression of 1874 to 1879. Again, there was a remarkable change in 1879, bringing in a fresh flood of importations in 1880 of more than one hundred millions in value greater than in the previous year. Generally, while the imports have decreased in value, and in some classes of goods have almost ceased to come in as part of the necessary supply, the exports have increased one half, rising from 500 millions in 1870 to 750 millions in 1880. To go a few years farther back the contrast would be still more striking: the average for several years near to 1860 would be about 300 millions; for 1870, about 500 millions; and for 1880, about 750 millions. And in 1879 and 1880 there has been a total cessation of the usual large specie exports, very little being sent, while during 1879 the imports of specie were large, being about 80 millions in excess of any other recent year.

The increase of shipping in the carrying trade

For 1880 the figures would be still larger, and it may be stated that the shipping engaged in foreign trade has doubled within ten years. There would be more satisfaction with this result if the increase had been in American vessels; but, on the contrary, it is almost wholly foreign. The vast fleet of half-employed foreign steamers has been turned into the transatlantic trade with the United States by wholesale, as the best-paying trade of the world, and the only one that offers unlimited opportunity for expansion.

The new transatlantic fleet of steamers is almost wholly under foreign flags. Of the entire tonnage arriving at New York not one steamship is American, and but four of those at other ports, these four belonging to the American line between Philadelphia and Liverpool. The contrast between the nationality of vessels under sail and those under steam is extreme, and it results from the narrow and sordid policy of Congress in regard to the encouragement of steam lines. All European nations faithfully and persistently support the steamship lines, through which alone a successful foreign commerce can now be conducted, and our government, on the contrary, with equal stubbornness and persistence, refuses not only all assistance, but all recognition as vessels under the protection of the United States. The result is that, with a trade the richest in the world, and a vast and daily increasing commerce, we are defeated the moment we leave our own shores.

The commerce of Europe has become more general and more decisive in its influence on remote countries with every step of its general progress. The establishment of regular steamship lines to all countries affording a constant trade was the greatest step of progress, and with its accompanying certainty of mail carriage and of passenger transportation, it has now for twenty years or more constituted the most powerful civilizing agency the world has known. This triumph is almost wholly to be credited to England, as the originator of the steam mail-service by sea, although every other maritime nation has followed the example set by England more or less remotely, several European countries maintaining effective lines of distant service, but none approaching the English in number. Great and regular lines to the Indies, and by the way of the Indies to Australia, were established, and continue as the leading feature of the British mail service; next are the South American and transatlantic lines, South America being reached by lines passing the French and Spanish coasts, and touching at Havre, Bordeaux, Lisbon, and the Azores on their way to Pernambuco; thence to Rio Janeiro and the River Plate, and with extensions through the Straits of Magellan to the west coast of South America, Chili, Peru, Ecuador, and Panama. No less than ten lines of steamers ran in 1877 to 1879 from European ports to South America,-five

English, employing 58 vessels, and five German, French, and Italian, employing 43 vessels,—all being steamships of large capacity and heavily freighted in both directions. The Royal Mail Steamship Company, the oldest of the lines, ran 10 vessels from Southampton to Rio Janeiro and the River Plate, monthly and semi-monthly; the Pacific Steam Navigation Company, with the same number of vessels, ran through to the west coast of South America with a monthly service; the Allan Line, to Brazil, with 10 vessels; the Liverpool, Brazil, and River Plate, with 20 vessels; and the Clyde Line, with 6 vessels, complete the English list. The North German Lloyds and the Hamburgh and South American constitute two German lines; the "Chargeurs Reunis," the "Compagnie Messageries Maritimes," and the "Société Générale Trans-Atlantique," constitute the French lines; and one Italian line, from Genoa, completes the list.

This is an illustration of the extent and completeness of the mail steamship service of modern commerce. It extends to every country having sufficient development to justify communication with Europe, and it radiates from English ports almost universally, although duplicated to a considerable extent from French, German, and Belgian ports. There is always an English line, and there may be, in addition, a French, German, or Italian line. Neither of these last has any general field exclusive of the English. In all this service the United States have no part, except in the "American Line" of four steamers from Philadelphia to Liverpool, and the line of John Roach & Co., of three steamers, from New York to Rio Janeiro. Neither of these lines receives especial recognition or compensation for mail service, although both carry some portion of the mails. Repeated efforts have been made to establish lines, or to obtain from Congress authority for conducting a mail service by sea, but in only two instances have such efforts been successful, and the authority under which they were conducted has some years since expired. The Pacific mail service is now paid by the Australian governments of New South Wales and New Zealand, these two colonial governments uniting in payment for a monthly mail service from Sydney and Auckland to San Francisco, the withdrawal of which would compel a discontinuance of that branch of the Pacific mail steamship service.

These

Such is the commerce of the present time, briefly reviewed. It is unquestionably in a transition state, and certain to undergo great changes within a comparatively brief period. changes will not be in the direction of diminished volume or of inferior appliances, but they will probably exhibit a higher and more general appreciation, in the United States at least, of the true function of commerce itself, and a recognition of the duty of every great government to maintain its own proper relation to the necessary exchanges of the world.-Lorin Blodgett.

Commission (Lat. committere, to commit, to intrust). An instrument in writing in the form of a warrant, or letters patent; a certificate of rank. The chief executive, or the supreme authority of the state, issues commissions to the officers of the army and navy, by virtue of which they hold office and exercise the duties thereof.

Such officers are termed commissioned officers to distinguish those of the navy from warrantofficers; those of the army from non-commissioned officers. By Section 1467, Revised Statutes, line-officers take rank in each grade according to the dates of their commissions.

A commission survives only during the pleasure of the authority whence it emanates. The Duke of Marlborough, while at the height of his power, exerted all his great influence to have his commission as captain-general extended for life; but the lord chancellor of England, having searched the records in vain for a precedent, declared that "a patent for life would be an innovation, to which he would not put the Great Seal" (Earl Stanhope's "Reign of Queen Anne"). It was found that the commission issued to Monk, who as "Restorer of the Monarchy" might claim especial privilege, was made to continue "during pleasure" only. Not satisfied with this decision, Marlborough, during the campaign in Flanders, addressed a personal letter to Queen Anne praying to be made general for life. To this the queen, on consulting with her ministers, returned a positive refusal.

The commission issued to Washington by Con gress under date of June 19, 1775, giving him the rank of commander-in-chief of the American army, stated that it was "to continue in force until revoked by this or a future Congress."

Following immemorial custom, all commissions issued to officers in the public service of the United States contain the following: "This commission to continue in force during the pleasure of the President of the United States for the time being."

In past years the President of the United States has, on several notable occasions, actually exercised his prerogative, by summarily dismissing officers. But Congress has now limited that power to a time of war. Article 36 of the Articles for the Government of the United States Navy, commonly known as the Articles of War, declares that "No officer shall be dismissed from the naval service except by the order of the President or by sentence of a general courtmartial; and in time of peace no officer shall be dismissed except in pursuance of the sentence of a general court-martial or in mitigation thereof." Congress has further decreed that under certain conditions the President's order of dismissal shall be void. (Act of June 22, 1874.)

A commission sometimes includes a number of persons associated together for some particular object. The commission issued by Queen Victoria (1858) to Earl Hardwicke and eight others, "to inquire into the best means of manning the Royal Navy," led to the present admirable system of training boys for that navy.

The act of putting a vessel of war "in commission" is accomplished by hoisting, in their appropriate places, the national colors and the pennant of the commanding officer. The commanding officer then assembles the officers and crew, and reads to them the order by virtue of which he assumes command.-S. B. Luce, Captain U.S.N.

COMMISSIONED OFFICER. An officer holding a commission from the President, as distinguished from non-commissioned and warrant

officers.

Commissioners, Board of Navy. In 1815

Congress authorized the formation of a board of navy commissioners, which was placed under the superintendence of the Secretary of the Navy, and was charged with all the ministerial duties of the department relating to the procuring of supplies and stores, the collection of materials, the construction, armament, and employment of all the vessels. Commodores Rodgers, Hull, and Porter were appointed the first commissioners. The board was abolished in 1842. See ADMINISTRATION, NAVAL.

sailing, and is supposed to derive its name from the fact that it includes or compasses the whole plane of the horizon.

Commissioners of the Navy (Eng.). Certain officers formerly appointed to superintend the affairs of the navy under direction of the lords commissioners of the Admiralty. Their duty was more immediately concerned in the building, docking, and repairing of ships in the dock-yards; they had also the appointment of some of the officers, as surgeons, masters, etc., and the transport, victualing, and medical departments were controlled by that board. It was abolished in 1831. See ADMINISTRATION, NAVAL.

The card (Fig. 1) is of a circular form, divided

Commodore. This rank of no remote date in the British service, and only now a brevet rank, so to speak, for a captain in command of a squadron or a division of a fleet, is not noticed in the dictionaries of the 17th century. It is supposed to be derived from the Spanish "Comendador," one having command over others, or a company. Until 1861 captains in the United States navy commanding, or having commanded, squadrons, were recognized as commodores, though never commissioned as such, and wore a broad pennant distinctive of that rank. In 1862 it was established by law as a fixed rank, and in July of that year 18 were commissioned on the active and 17 on the retired list.

at its circumference into thirty-two points of eleven degrees and fifteen minutes each, the points being subdivided into half and quarter points, and when a still smaller division is desired, into degrees. It is also divided into four quadrants of ninety degrees each, the extremities marking these quadrants being called the four cardinal points, or north, east, south, and west (written N., E., S., and W.), counting from the top of the card and going around by the right hand, or in the direction in which the hands of a watch move. The north point of the card is generally marked by a fleur-de-lis.

A commodore has assimilated rank with a brigadier-general of the army; and the chief naval constructor, paymaster-general, surgeon-general and engineer-in-chief of the navy, bureau officers, rank with commodores.

A commodore may command a division or a squadron, or be chief of staff of a naval force commanded by an admiral, a vice- or rear-admiral; or may command ships of the first class, naval stations, or the vessel of an admiral, viceadmiral, or rear-admiral commanding a fleet.

The quadrants are again equally divided at every four points, or forty-five degrees, the points marking these subdivisions being given names compounded of the names of the two cardinal points between which they fall, or northeast, southeast, southwest, and northwest (written N.E., S.E., S. W., and N.W.).

Companion. The skylights or framing and sash-lights on the upper deck, by which light passes to the deck below. A kind of wooden hood over the staircase of the cabin in small ships. Companions are generally movable. COMPANION-LADDER. The ladder by which the cabin-officers ascend to or descend from the quarter-deck.

COMPANION-WAY. The staircase or berthing of the ladder-way to the cabin.

The eight points already described may be called the eight principal points of the compass. The points half-way between the four cardinal points and the points N.E., S. E., S. W., and N. W. are given a name composed of the nearest cardinal point and the points last named. Thus, the point midway between N. and N.E. is called north-northeast (written N.N.E.), that between N.E. and E. east-northeast (written E.N.E.), etc., the name of the cardinal point nearest which they fall always coming first.

Comparison. The difference between the chronometer and the time-piece used in an observation. To take a comparison is to ascertain the difference between the time-piece and the chronometer; this should be done just before and just after the observation.

The points next the eight principal points take the word by between such principal point and the next cardinal point, the name of the principal point next which they fall coming first. For example, the point next to N. on the right is north by east (written N. by E., or N. b. E.), that next to N.E. on the right, northeast by east (written N.E. by E., or N.E. b. E.), etc.

Compasant. See ST. ELMO'S FIRE. Compass, The Mariner's. This is probably the most important of all the instruments employed by the navigator, and consists essentially of the card, the needle, and the bowl. It is used for the purpose of pointing out the direction of the ship's track, or the course upon which she is

The quarter point next to N. on the right is north a quarter east (written N. E.), the half point north a half east (written N. E.), the same general rule being observed as in naming the whole points.

In many cases the bearings of objects are given to eighths of a point.

The name of the opposite point to any given point is known at once by simply reversing the name or the letters which indicate the name of the given point. Thus, the opposite of N. being S. and that of E., W., the opposite point of N.E. is S.W., that opposite N.E. by E., S. W. by W.,

etc.

If the impressions of the card are taken on paper, this should be done after the paper has been cemented to the plate forming the basis, in order to prevent distortion from shrinkage, and also to attain a more perfect centring. This being accomplished, the card is placed upon the needles, which consist of lamina, or layers, of hardened steel, capable of receiving and retaining a high degree of magnetic power. The needles are fastened at equal distances to a light frame-work of brass, and are screwed to the card in a direction parallel to the line joining the north and south points.

In the best form of air or dry compasses, that used in the English navy, and known as the Admiralty pattern, these needles are four in number, the two centre ones being about 7 inches long and the two outer ones about 5 inches. The extremities of these needles are 15° and 45° from the extremities of the diameter of the card which is parallel to them. On the needles small brass balancing-slides are placed, so that the card may be restored to its horizontal position when affected by dip. These slides should move freely, but should have sufficient friction to retain them in their places.

Two cards, a light and a heavy one, marked respectively A and J, are supplied with this compass, the former being for ordinary use when the ship is comparatively steady, and the latter for use when there is a great deal of motion. The light card is balanced on a pivot having a point of "native alloy," which is harder than steel, and does not corrode on exposure to the atmosphere. Two spare pivots of hardened steel are also furnished for the light card, and these are gilded by an electrical process. The caps in which these pivots work are centred with ruby or agate, while the cap of the heavy card is centred with speculum metal and ruby-pointed pivots are used.

The pivot should be screwed into the exact centre of the bowl, which is made of strong copper, with a glass top, and fitted with gimbals, so that the card may always preserve a horizontal position even when the motion of the ship is most violent. The intersecting point of the axis of the gimbals must coincide with the centre of the card and with the centre of the azimuth circle. This latter is a metal circle, graduated to minutes of arc, and fitted with a prism and a sight vane, the latter having a wide opening in which is placed a vertical hair-line exactly opposite the centre of the prism, the line of sight joining the two passing over the pivot. The azimuth circle is made to ship on the circumference of the bowl, and is used in taking bearings. Colored glasses are also fitted to the circle to prevent the glare of the sun from blinding the observer when taking bearings of that body. The azimuth circle is only fitted to the standard compass, the binnacle, or steering compasses, being unprovided with it.

The bowl and the compass-card are placed in a wooden box and the whole in a binnacle, which

consists of a wooden case mounted on a stand, the top being of brass, fitted with glass, so that the card may be seen, and having lamps at the sides to light up the card at night.

The pivots, caps, and margins of the card should be frequently examined to see that they are in good order and working freely, and when the card works sluggishly or injury from any cause occurs, a new cap or pivot should be screwed in, being careful when screwing the pivot into the bowl to preserve its point from injury and to place the card lightly upon it. When the bowl does not work freely in the gimbals, the axes of the latter and their bouchings should be examined, and, if necessary, slightly rubbed with plumbago. No oil, grease, or other fatty substance should be used for this purpose.

In addition to the fittings already described a screw is fitted to the side of the bowl, by means of which the card may be lifted off the pivot and clamped. When it is necessary to move the compass, or when firing the heavy guns, the card should be raised to avoid injury to the pivot.

The screws attached to the prism plate and to the sight vane receive special adjustment, and should not be touched.

Ritchie's Liquid Compass (Fig. 2), which is used as the regulation compass in the United

States navy, consists of a skeleton card mounted on a pivot, and having the bowl filled with a liquid composed of thirty-five parts of alcohol and sixty-five parts of distilled water, the freezing-point of the mixture being about -10° Fahrenheit. In the bowls of the compasses designed for use in the Arctic regions pure alcohol is used.

The needles, which are two in number, each consist of six laminae of a superior quality of steel, known in commerce as "Stubb's sheet," this having been found the best for the purpose, not only for its uniform excellence, but for its magnetic capacity in both intensity and permanence. Each of these lamina is six and a half inches long, seven-sixteenths of an inch wide, and about one-fortieth of an inch thick, and each needle weighs a little less than two

ounces.

These needles are inclosed in two parallel tubes, which serve also as air-chambers, the tubes being parallel to the line joining the N. and S. points of the card, their ends meeting the rim a little within 30° of this line. These tubes are connected at the centre by a third hollow tube at right angles to them, which supports the cap upon which the card is pivoted. The rim is fitted to form another air-chamber, thus giving great buoyancy to the card.

Great care is exercised in hardening and tempering the lamina, and, by means of a powerful electro-magnet, they are magnetized to saturation. They are then separately tested for relative magnet power, and the angle of deflection marked on each. Afterwards they are thrown promiscuously into contact for a short time and again tested, any which show a sensible falling off being rejected.

These compasses have given great satisfaction in use, and are found to possess in the highest degree the three great requisites of a good compass, viz., directive force, sensibility, and steadiness. The 74-inch has been adopted as the regulation size in the navy, and as the azimuth circle that fits one fits all, any compass may be used indifferently as a standard or as a steering com

pass.

Another great advantage possessed by these compasses is that the pressure on the pivot being only about seventy grains on an average, there is much less frictional error, and of course a much less degree of wear on the caps and pivots than with the card of the air compass, in which the pressure on the pivot with the heavier card may be sixty times as great.

In the tell-tale compasses, which are mounted face downward, the pressure on the pivot is so regulated as to act upward.

Duchemin's Compass (Fig. 3) consists of two concentric circular needles with a steel traverse

In a series of experiments made at sea with this compass, in which it was intentionally exposed to the roughest usage, it proved so satisfactory with regard to sensibility, steadiness, and fixity of the line of its poles, that it has been adopted as the regulation compass in the French navy, and is in use in several lines of merchant

steamers.

The magnetic needle is subject to the influences of variation or declination, dip or inclination, and deviation.

On account of the magnetic attraction of the earth there are but few places on the globe at which the compass-needle points to the true north, or in the direction of a terrestrial me

ridian. The direction that the horizontal needle assumes when uninfluenced by local causes is called the magnetic meridian, hence the variation of the compass is the angle included between the terrestrial and the magnetic meridians, and is measured by the number of degrees between the true and the magnetic north. If the N. end of the needle is drawn to the right hand of true north, the variation is called easterly, and if to the left hand, westerly.

connecting the poles. The maximum magnetization (shown by the heavy shading) is at the N. and S. points, decreasing gradually to zero at E. and W. The circle is magnetized by a special process, which gives magnetic stability, and placed upon a pivot or suspended by a thread from the centre, it forms a true compass, the N. pole pointing to the south and the S. pole to the north.

The variation of the compass differs at different places, and is constantly, though slowly, changing at the same place, increasing for a certain time, then slowly decreasing for a period, when it again commences to increase. Thus, at Paris, in 1550, the variation was 8° E., in 1660, zero, and in 1769, 20° W. It is also subject to mensual and diurnal changes, the mensual change being according to the season of the year. It was first noticed about the year 1756.

In the diurnal change, a small easterly movement of the needle is observed during the early morning hours, reaching a maximum about 7 A.M. After that time the N. end moves rapidly westward, reaching its extreme westerly position at about 1 P.M. It then returns to the eastward, but more slowly, the easterly deviation becoming a maximum at about 10 P.M. To seamen, however, these small fluctuations are unimportant. The mean daily range of the magnetic needle is about 9.3'.

The needle is also affected by sudden changes in the direction and intensity of the magnetic force. Raper cites a case in which, at Greenwich observatory, the needle was observed to change its direction more than 24° in eight minutes of time, and similar effects were observed at other places. These sudden disturbances are called magnetic storms.

If all places having the same variation be united by lines drawn upon the chart, these lines will be found to describe irregular curves, called lines of equal variation, or isogonic lines. The lines uniting places at which the needle, when uninfluenced by local causes, points to the true north are called lines of no variation, or agonic lines.

The discovery of the variation of the needle from the true north is usually attributed to Columbus during the voyage in which he discovered America, but in one of the earliest treatises on magnetism, written in 1269, the variation of the needle is spoken of. The authenticity of this work has, however, been questioned.

The magnetic needle when placed on a pivot will not retain its horizontal position except on