the reformed religion, and at the age of thirteen was sent to learn war from his uncles Maurice and Henry of Nassau in the campaigns of these princes against the Spaniards. In 1626 he received a commission as captain of infantry in the service of Holland, and by 1630 had shown such military capacity that Richelieu invited him back to France and appointed him colonel of a regiment. He was present at the relief of Casale, and on June 21, 1635, was made a maréchal de camp | for his services at the siege of La Motte in Lorraine under De la Force. In that year he took command of a division in the army under Cardinal La Valette in the defense of Mainz. In 1636 he was present under La Valette at the siege of Saverne, where he was wounded, and in the campaign in Franche Comté; in 1637 he served under the same commander in Flanders, took Landrecies, and drove back the cardinal infant from Maubeuge. In 1638 he served under Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar at the siege of Breisach, and in the following year was transferred to the army of D'Harcourt in Italy. It was at this epoch that he established his fame as a general. In November, 1639, he covered the retreat of the army, and fought a famous engagement, known as the battle of the "route de Quiers;" in 1640 he saved Casale, and insisted upon not abandoning the siege of Turin, which town surrendered on September 24th; in 641 he took Coni, Ceva, and Mondovi; and on March 11, 1642, he was promoted to the rank of lieutenant-general. He was appointed by Richelieu in 1643 to the command of the army in Italy, under Thomas of Savoy, although his brother, the Duc de Bouillon, had just before been arrested as an accomplice in the conspiracy of Cinq Mars. Mazarin did not exhibit quite so much confidence in Turenne, and in December, 1643, removed him from Italy, but he softened the transference by creating Turenne a marshal of France on May 16, 1644. Turenne's four campaigns in Germany, which largely contributed to the peace of Westphalia, have always been regarded as models in the art of war. In May, 1645, Turenne was surprised by Mercy at Marienthal and defeated; but he skillfully concentrated the remains of his army and retreated into Hesse, where he was soon joined by D'Enghien. The two marshals, having reorganized their army, marched against Mercy and totally defeated him at Nördlingen on August 3, 1645, when Mercy was killed. D'Enghiem again left the army to Turenne, who, in conjunction with the Swedish army under Wrangel, overran Franconia and Swabia, taking all the fortresses there in 1646. In 1647 he conducted a still more masterly campaign, and after beating the Bavarians and Imperialists in two engagements he and the Swedes occupied Bavaria, and drove the old duke out of his dominions. When the troubles of the Fronde (see FRANCE and MAZARIN) broke out, Turenne, who was in command of the veteran troops of Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in Alsace, hesitated which side to take, till the Duchesse de LONGUEVILLE (q.v.) with whom he fell violently in love, persuaded him to side with the parlement. But his troops refused to follow him, and he had to fly with her to Flanders. He there took a command in the Spanish army under Don Estevan Gomar, and, when trying to raise the siege of Réthel, was utterly defeated by Du Plessis-Praslin. But in 1652 he defeated Condé at Gien, and nearly annihilated his army in the battle of the Faubourg St. Antoine. When the troubles of the Fronde were over, Turenne marched upon the frontier, and in several campaigns defeated the Spaniards. In these campaigns he had once more to fight against Condé, general-in-chief of the armies of Spain, and in 1654 he showed his superiority by raising the siege of Arras and driving the Spaniards from their lines. In 1656 Condé, assisted by Don John of Austria, won an exactly similar victory and relieved Valenciennes, which Turenne was besieging. The prolonged contest between the two was decided in 1658 by Turenne's victory of the Dunes, in which Cromwell's contingent of 6,000 soldiers took part. Louis XIV. now began to rule in reality, and one of his first acts was to create Turenne in 1660 marshalgeneral of the armies of France. Seven years later Turenne occupied French Flanders and took all the fortresses in that province. It was in 1668 that Turenne made his notorious change of faith. Born of Calvinist parents and educated a Protestant, he had in compliance of the tenets of his religion refused to marry one of Richelieu's nieces in 1639, and had eventually married a daughter of the Protestant Marshal de la Force. But it can hardly be believed that he was converted at the age of fifty-seven from religious convictions. In 1672 the second great European war broke out, brought about by the ambition of Louis XIV. Turenne once more took command of the army, which the king accompanied, and speedily occupied the greater part of Holland, which, however, they were forced to evacuate owing to the Dutch cutting their dykes. In the following year Turenne marched into Westphalia to oppose the imperialist forces, and, though his army was small compared to that of Montecuculi, the imperialist general, he managed to make head against both him and the elector of Brandenburg. In 1673 he was compelled to act on the defensive; but in 1674, in spite of his inferi ority of numbers, he boldly resumed the aggressive. Crossing the Rhine at Philippsburg in June, and marching rapidly to Sinsheim, he defeated the imperialist general Caprara and the duke of Lorraine. After the rout of Colmar and the defeat of Türkheim which followed it, he laid waste the greater part of Alsace, as a defensive measure against another advance of the imperialists. He then advanced into the heart of Germany, and again met Montecuculi, who had succeeded the elector of Brandenburg as general-in-chief. The two generals maneuvered for four months in much the same way as Wellington and Marmont marched and counter-marched before the battle of Salamanca; at last, on July 27, 1675, their field of battle was chosen, and, as Turenne was directing the position of a battery, he was struck by a cannon ball and killed on the spot. TURGAI, a Russian province in Central Asia, formerly a part of the Kirghiz steppe, and now embodied in the governor-generalship of the Steppes, is bounded by Uralsk and Orenburg on the west and north, by Akmolinsk on the east, and by Syr-Daria and the Sea of Aral on the south. This extensive and irregularly-shaped territory, which has an area (176,800 square miles) as large as that of Caucasia and Transcaucasia taken together, belongs to the Aral-Caspian depression. The steppe land of Turgai is only some 300 feet above the sea-level, and is dotted with lakes, of which the Tcholgardenghiz, which receives the Turgai and its tributary the Irghiz, is the largest. The Turgai was, at a recent epoch, a large river flowing into the Sea of Aral and receiving an extensive system of tributaries, which are now lost in the sands before joining it. The climate of Turgai is exceedingly dry and continental. Orsk, a town of Orenburg, on its northwestern border, has a January as cold as that of the west coast of Nova Zembla (-4° Fahr.), while in July it is as hot as July in Morocco (730); the corresponding figures for Irghiz, in the center of the province, are 70 and 77°. At Irghiz and Orsk the annual rainfall is somewhat under ten and twelve inches respectively (three inches in summer). The population of Turgai is estimated at 323,110, all nomad Kirghiz, with the exception of some 3,000, who are settled in four villages officially described as towns. Agriculture is in its earliest stage of development; but some 800,000 bushels of grain are raised in the southwest by the Kirghiz, who sell some of it in Orenburg. Cattle-breeding is the chief occupation, and within the province there are some 800,000 horses, 335,000 cattle, about 200,000 camels, and more than 2,000,000 sheep. But the want of fodder in spring occasions violent murrains which sometimes result in actual famine among the Kirghiz. The four settlements of the province are Turgai, chief town and seat of the provincial administration, with less than 400 inhabitants, and the "district towns" of Irghiz (920), Ak-tube (400), and Karabutak (300), the last two being more or less fortified. Several merchants in these carry on trade with the Kirghiz, exchanging manufactured goods for wool and skins, which are sent to the frontier settlements of Orenburg. then (August 21st) promoted to the ministry of finance. In his new office he addressed to the young king a declaration of the principles by which he intended to be guided: "No bankruptcy, no increase of taxation, and no borrowing." Economy and wise management were to be his only resources. By a decree of September, 13, 1774, he reestablished free trade in grain within the kingdom, which had been suspended by Terray, and authorized the importation of supplies from abroad; the traffic in other alimentary substances was also relieved of many impediments, and various monopolies and exclusive privileges were abolished; the octroi taxation was reformed, public works promoted, and improvements in agriculture encouraged. Some of these measures were made the pretext for disturbances, known as la guerre des farines, which Turgot always suspected the Prince de Conti of having fomented. A vile conspiracy having poisoned Louis' mind against him, he addressed to the king an eloquent letter in which he pointed out the grave perils impending over TURGENEF (or TOURGUENIEF), IVAN SERGE- the throne and the state, and warned Louis that JEVITSCH, one of the best known of modern Russian princes who are tempted to give themselves up to the novelists, was born at Orel November 9, 1818, educated direction of the courtiers should remember the fate of at Moscow and Berlin, and obtained a post under the Charles I. The minister received his dismissal on minister of the interior. He became known as a poet May 12, 1776. He had been in office only twenty in 1843. He was banished in 1852 for his liberalism; months, of which he had lost six in repressing sedition, and, though afterward pardoned, has lived mostly in and for seven more had been confined to his bed by the Paris, and Baden. Turgenef was a very prolific author. gout; but he had done during his tenure an extraorOf his novels, the chief that have been translated are dinary amount of work. Voltaire, however, nobly Russian Life, Fathers and Sons, Smoke, Liza, Spring avenged Turgot on his enemies in his Epitre à un Floods, and Virgin Soil. He died September 3, 1883. Homme. The fallen minister devoted his remaining TURGOT. ANNE ROBERT JACQUES TURGOT, years to his favorite studies, especially to physical MARQUIS DE L'AULNE, French statesman and econ- science and the ancient poets; he enjoyed the society of omist, was born at Paris, May 10, 1727. His family, Lavoisier, D'Alembert, Condorcet, Bossut, Rochon, which was ancient and noble, is said to have been orig- and Rouelle, and attended the meetings of the Academy inally Scottish, but had long been settled in Normandy. of Inscriptions, of which he was elected vice-director His ancestors early abandoned the sword for the robe. in 1777- He also corresponded with Price and FrankBoth his father and grandfather had been in the civil lin, and, if we may believe Condorcet, with Adam service of the state; his father was "prévôt des mar-Smith, whose acquaintance he had made at Paris in chands" at Paris, and won a high reputation as a mag- 1766. Turgot died at Paris on March 18, 1781. istrate and administrator. Turgot in his childhood was timid, and showed in company an absent and embarrassed air. He obtained his early education at the College Louis-le-Grand, and was afterward a student of the College du Plessis. He then entered the seminary of St. Sulpice, and thence passed to the Sorbonne with the view of taking his license in theology. But he decided finally, in 1751, not to follow the ecclesiastical profession. As prior of the Sorbonne (an honorary office conferred annually on some distinguished student) he wrote and delivered publicly in 1750 two remarkable piecesone On the Benefits which the Christian Religion has conferred on Mankind, the other On the Historical Progress of the Human Mind. Having chosen the law as his profession, he was appointed in 1752 “conseiller substitut du procureur général," and afterward "conseiller au parlement. Turgot wrote (1753) Letters to a Vicar-General on Toleration and a pamphlet entitled Le Conciliateur in favor of religious liberty and against the interference of the temporal power in theological disputes. In 1753 he became "maitre des requétes." Turgot accompanied Gournay in 1755 and 1756 in his official tours of inspection as intendant of | commerce, and on Gournay's death in 1759 he wrote his Eloge. He contributed about this period several articles to the Encyclopédie. Shortly after the accession of Louis XVI. Turgot was appointed by Maurepas (July 19, 1774) minister of marine, and in that capacity began at once to initiate important reforms, and to conceive far-reaching projBut he filled the post only for five weeks, being | ects. TURIN, a city of northern Italy, formerly the capital of Piedmont and the Sardinian states and now the chief town of a province in the compartimento of Piedmont, is situated in the alluvial valley of the Po, just above the confluence of the Dora Riparia. The Monte dei Cappuccini in the neighborhood reaches 922 and La Superga 2,405 feet. As viewed from the east the city stands out boldly against the Alps. Taken as a whole Turin may be described as a very modern city, with broad and regular streets, and large squares and public gardens. The cathedral of St. John the Baptist is a cruciform Renaissance building dating from the close of the fifteenth century. The site was first occupied by a church erected, it is said, by the Lombard duke Agilulf (seventeenth century). Of the secular buildings the more interesting are the Madama palace, first erected by William of Montferrat in the close of the thirteenth century, and the extensive royal palace begun in the seventeenth century. The university, founded in 1400 by Lodovico di Acaja, has faculties of jurisprudence, medicine and surgery, literature and philosophy, and the mathematical, physical, and natural sciences. The number of students enrolled was 2,132 in 1886. About 1876 the old university buildings, erected in 1713 by the Genoese architect Ricca, began to prove too small for their purpose; and at the present time new buildings, fitted more especially for the medical and scientific departments, are being erected. The area of the botanical gardens has also been extended and the observatory enlarged. The medical school derives advantage from the number of important hospitals in the city. The academy of sciences was founded in 1757, tinued into the Transcaucasian chains, rise on the northeastern edge of the western plateau. The industries of Turin and its suburbs give employ- | scribed under the general name of Kopet-Dagh, conment to 17.936 persons (13,305 men, 4,631 women). Spinning-mills, weaving-factories, "vesta "factories (De Medici), breweries, and iron-works are among the more extensive establishments. The commercial relations of the city are very extensive. It is the seat of the central offices of the North Italian railway; and the central station is one of the most imposing buildings of its class in the country. The mean annual temperature at Turin is 53° Fahr. (Jan. 36°, July 74°), with a maximum of 96 and a minimum of 4.10. Mists are frequent in the winter mornings, and to a less degree in autumn. Snow seldom falls in any great quantity, and on an average only on seven days per annum. The rainfall, distributed over 100 days, reaches thirty-two inches-December being 1.6 and April 4.3. The population of Turin was only about 4,200 in 1377 and 9,000 in 1580; but by 1702 it was returned as 43,866. In 1848 it had risen to 136,849, and in 1861 to 204,715. In spite of the changes caused by the removal of the capital, first to Florence and then to Rome, the census of 1881 showed 233, 124 inhabitants (commune 252,832). | Between 1859 and 1865 Turin was the capital of united Italy. Among the many men of mark born in Turin it is enough to mention Lagrange, Gioberti, Cesare Balbo, Cavour, Marochetti the sculptor, D'Azeglio, and Sommellier. TURKESTAN. The terms " Turkestan " and " Central Asia" are often used indiscriminately to describe the whole of the immense territory to the east of the Caspian, comprised between Siberia on the north and Khorasan (Persia), Afghanistan, and Tibet on the south, or to designate separate, sometimes arbitrarily determined, parts of the same region. In the beginning of the nineteenth century the whole of the territory just named, with its great variety of altitudes, climate, inhabitants-these last differing as much in their history as in their present characteristics-was comprised under the vague denominatian of High Tartary, or High or Interior Asia. After the appearance of Humboldt's first draft of Asie Centrale in 1831, the term "Central Asia" came into favor. The name Central Asia can still be used with great advantage to designate that immense portion of the continent to the east of the Caspian and the Ust-Urt plateau which is limited on the north by the important_climatic and geo-botanic boundary of the Irtish and Aral water-parting and the Great or Ektagh Altai, on the east by the eastern Gobi, and on the south by the northern border of the Khor plateau (Altyn-Tagh and Kuen-Lun), the Hindu-Kush, and the Kopet-Dagh. Extensive as it is, this territory has its own climatic and geo-botanic features; it forms a distinct part of the continent, when the orography of Asia is broadly viewed; and its inhabitants have a number of common characteristics resulting directly from the physical features of the territory. But this immense area must be subdivided; and its subdivisions become apparent as soon as the orographical features are grasped. Two great plateaus constitute the two backbones, as it were, of the orographical structure of Asia-that of eastern Asia, an immense triangle stretching north-eastwards, having the Himalayas for its base and the peninsula of the Tchuktchis for its apex; and that of western Asia, which extends at right angles to the above, from the lower Indus to the Black Sea. The Hindu-Kush ⚫ connects these two massive swellings, both continents of the oldest formation in Asia. Both are fringed on their northern edges by lofty chains of mountains. The Tian-Shan, the Altai, the Sayan, and the Vitim mountains rise in a long succession on the borders of the former, while a series of chains, which might be de An immense trapezoidal depression occupies the angle on the west where the great plateaus meet, and this depression is West Turkestan. Its southeastern limits are the Hindu-Kush and the Tian-Shan; on its southwestern edge it has the Iranian plateau; and its northwest and northeast boundaries correspond with the edge of the Ust-Urt and the Irtish and Aral water-parting, which separates it from Siberia. The trapezium is 1,100 miles long from southwest to northeast, and 900 miles wide from southeast to northwest. It thus includes, not only the depression at the junction of the two plateaus, but also the girdle of alpine tracts which fringes them, and in whose deep and sheltered valleys the Turkish and partly Iranian population of Turkestan find a fertile soil and plenty of water for their fields, while their herds graze on the rich alpine meadows in the very heart of the Tian-Shan. Not orographically only but also in respect of its recent geological past, its climate, flora, fauna, and inhabitants, this region forms a geographical domain by itself, quite distinct from the steppes of southeastern Russia, the prairies of Siberia, and the two great plateaus by which it is inclosed; and, although it is easily subdivided into two parts-the dry lowlands of the Transcaspian depression and the plains and highlands of Turkestan proper-it presents one geographical whole when contrasted with the surrounding regions. West Turkestan is often called Russian Turkestan, as distinguished from Chinese or East Turkestan. This second great region of Central Asia also has well-defined limits. A glance at any recent map shows that there is in the great eastern plateau a depression bordered by the deep slopes of the Pamir (Humbol's Bolor) on the west, the border-ridges of Tibet (Kuen-Lun and Altyn-Tagh) on the south, the eastern Tian-Shan on the north, and the western Gobi on the east. Although we call it a depression, because it is much lower than the surrounding plateaus, it is itself a plateau, ranging from 3,000 to 4,000 feet above sea-level. This depression, the Hang-hai of the Chinese, which, during the later Tertiary and earlier Quaternary period, was covered by a sea, of which a very small survival still exists in Lob-Nor, is now drained by the Tarim. Its deserts, in which human settlements are now very rare, though formerly the population was much denser, have been described under a variety of names, Little Bokhara, Alty-shar or Jity. shar, Kashgaria, and so on); but the name of East Turkestan has prevailed, and there is no reason for abandoning it, provided it is not confounded with DZUNGARIA (9.7.) in the north and the great Desert of Gobi in the east. West Turkestan has an area of nearly 1,680,000 square miles, and a population of nearly 8,500,000. It presents a very great variety of aspects, including the lonely plateau of Pamir, in height second only to that of Tibet; the immense complex of alpine tracts described under the general name of Tian-Shan (three times as long as the Alps of Europe), which lift their snow-clad peaks four and nearly five miles above the sea, and feed huge glaciers, while their deep valleys and gorges par take of almost every variety of climate and vegetation; rich prairies and still wider lowlands descending below the level of the ocean; and deserts where the winds, burning hot or icy, but always dry, have free scope to modify the surface, which is bare of vegetation. Nevertheless West Turkestan is sharply divided into two parts--the highlands in the southeast and the plains and deserts in the northwest. The former cover an ea nearly 1,000 miles long by 270 broad, of which the -orthern parts are described under the general name of ian-Shan (properly, T'han-Shan). Their distinctive ature is that, like the highlands of Siberia, they conitute a high border-ridge, running west-southwest to ast-northeast on the edge of the great plateau of astern Asia. The Hindu-Kush, with its snow-clad ummits of 18,000 and 20,000 feet, limits the highlands f Turkestan to the southeast. At the foot of its orthwestern slope it has the plateau of Pamir-the Roof of the World"-with an area of about 37,000 quare miles. A series of chains, gently sloping and ome-shaped, rising 4,000 or 5,000 feet above the level of the plateau, traverse it from southwest to north ast. Nearly 150 miles to the northwest of the Hindu-Kush ies the northwestern border of the Pamir, fringed by the lofty Trans-Alai Mountains. Their crest, covered with snow, rises nearly four miles above the sea (Kaufmann Peak 23,000 feet); but the traveler approaching them from the south would hardly guess their height, because their southern slope toward the wildernesses of the plateau, themselves 13,000 feet high, is very gentle. Like the highlands of Siberia, those of Turkestan are fringed by a girdle of plains, having an altitude of from 1,000 to 1,500 feet, and these again are skirted by an immense lowland area reaching only 400, 300, and 150 feet, or even sinking below the level of the ocean. These plains and lowlands cover nearly 650,000 square miles. The dryness of the climate is excessive: rain falls only where the hills cause the clouds to condense, the soil elsewhere being moistened only occasionally by sa few showers. Two rivers only-the Syr and the Amu -succeed in crossing the desert and reaching the Sea of Aral. The whole area is now undergoing geological changes on a vast scale. Rivers have changed their courses, and lakes their outlines. Far away from their present shores the geologist finds indubitable traces of the recent presence of the lakes in the shells they have left amid the sands. Traces of former rivers and channels, which were the main arteries of prosperous regions within the period of written history, have now disappeared. Of the highly developed civilizations which grew up and flourished in Bactriana, Bokhara, and Samarkand the last traces are now undergoing rapid obliteration with the desiccation of the rivers and lakes. The climate of West Turkestan is exceedingly dry and continental. Although the country is comprised within the latitudes of Sicily and Lyons, it has a south Norwegian January and a Persian summer. Temperatures of more than 100° Fahr. in the shade are common, and the heat is rendered still more unbearable by the reflection from a soil destitute of vegetation. The winter is for the most part so cold that the average temperature for January is below the freezing point, and even reaches o° Fahr. Snow falls for several months on the lower Syr-Daria, and, were it not blown the winds, sledge communication would be river is frozen for an average of 123 its lower parts, and nearly 100 days of Turkestan belongs to the in of northern Asia, and is nce of species which have rts of the Old World test regions of the reat Palæoarctic of Himalayan ibe in a few pecies are ean and known only in the Himalayas, or in Persia, while others have their origin in east Asia. The commonest are mostly European. As for the very rich insect fauna, of which full descriptions are now accessible, it is worthy of note that among the Lepidoptera of the Pamir there is an interesting mixture of Tian-Shan with Himalayan species. As a whole the flora of Turkestan belongs to that of Central Asia, which was formerly continued by geobotanists as far west as the steppes of Russia, but which must now be considered as a separate region subdivided into two-the Central Asian proper and that of the Gobi. The arable land occupies less than a fiftieth of the whole area of West Turkestan, even when the Transcaspian deserts are left out of account. The remainder is nearly equally divided between pasture land and desert (sandy steppe and barren mountain). Owing to a very equitable distribution of irrigation water in accordance with Moslem Law, agriculture and gardening have reached a high stage of development in the oases. Two crops are usually taken every year. Wheat, barley, millet, pease, lentils, rice, sorghum, lucerne, and cotton are the chief agricultural products. Carrots, melons, vegetable marrows, and onions are extensively grown. Rye and oats are cultivated in Kazalinsk and Kopal. Corn is exported. Owing to the irrigation, total failure of crops and consequent famines are unknown, unless among the Kirghiz shepherds. The kitchen gardens of the Mohammedans are, as a rule, admirably kept. Potatoes are grown only by the Russians. The cultivation of cotton is rapidly extending as also is sericulture, which is chiefly carried on in Ferghana, whence silk cocoons are an important item of export. Cattle-breeding is extensively pursued, and in Russian Turkestan alone recent estimates show 400,000 camels, 1,600,000 horses, 1,200,000 cattle, and 11,000,000 sheep. This last figure, however, is but a very rough estimate the flocks on the Kirghiz steppe being so large that the proprietors themselves do not know their exact numbers. Murtains are of frequent occurrence; a recent one resulted in a terrible famine among the Kirghiz. Live cattle, hides, wool, camel-hair, tallow, felt, and leather are exported to a considerable extent. The mineral wealth of Turkestan is considerable. Traces of auriferous sands have been discovered at many places, but the percentage of gold is too poor to make the working remunerative. Silver, lead, and iron ores occur at several places; but the want of fuel is an obstacle to their exploitation. The vast coal-beds of Kulja and several inferior ones in Turkestan are not yet seriously worked, the total yearly output being only some 120,000 hundredweights. The naphtha wells of Ferghana and the layers of graphite about Sairam-Nor are also neglected. There are abundant deposits of gypsum, alum, kaolin, marble, and similar materials. Notwithstanding the salt springs of Ferghana and Syr-Daria, the salt lakes of the region, and the rock-salt strata of the Alexandrovsk Mountains, salt is imported. Turkestan has no manufacturing industry carried on by means of machinery, except a few distilleries and two establishments for dressing raw cotton. But there is a great variety of artisan work, which, however, has been for some time declining and now stands at a rather low level. Turkestan has no lack of populous cities, which, notwithstanding recent vicissitudes, continue to be important for their trade, while several others are widely famous for the part they have played in history. KHOKAND, MARGHILAN, Namangan, and Andijan in Ferghana; TASHKEND and KHOJEND in Syr-Daria; Ha teacher was distinguished by several features which at In 1889 the population of Tumkur numbered 413,183 (males 203,253, females 209,930), embracing 395,443 Hindus, 17,130 Mohammedans, and 603 Christians. Tumkur town, situated at the base of the Devaraydurga Hills, forty-three miles northwest of Bangalore, with a population of 9,909, is the administrative headquarters. TUMOR. See PATHOLOGY and SURGERY. It reached the height of its comparative popularity in the latter half of the eighteenth century, and is specially associated with Colley Cibber, Samuel Johnson, Cumberland the dramatist, Garrick, Richardson, Reynolds, Beau Nash, Miss Chudleigh, and Mrs. Thrale. The Tunbridge of that period is sketched with much graphic humor in Thackeray's Virginians. T’UNG-CHOW, a sub-prefectural city in Chih-li, the metropolitan province of China, is situated on the banks of the Peiho, about twelve miles southeast of Peking. Like most Chinese cities, T'ung-Chow has appeared in history under various names. By the founder of the Han dynasty (206 B.C.) it was called Lu-Hien; with the rise of the T'ang dynasty (618 A.D.) its name was changed to Heuen-Chow; and, at the beginning of the twelfth century, with the advent of the Kin dynasty to power, Heuen-Chow became T'ungChow. The city marks the highest point at which the Peiho is navigable, and here merchandise for the capital is transferred to a canal, by which it reaches Peking. The city, which is faced on its eastern side by the river, and on its other three sides is surrounded by populous suburbs, is upward of three miles in circumference. The place derives its importance from the fact that it is the port of Peking. Its population was estimated at about 50,000 in 1887. TUNGSTEN (Germ. wolfram, or, antiquated, scheel), one of the metallic elements of chemistry. The mineral tungsten (meaning in Swedish "heavy stone") used to be taken for a tin ore until this was disproved by Cronsted. Scheele showed, in 1781, that it is a compound of lime with a peculiar acid, the metallic nature of which was recognized in the same year by Bergmann. It occurs only as a component of a number of relatively rare minerals, the most important of which are wolfram TUNBRIDGE, or TONBRIDGE, a town of Kent, or wolframite, and scheelite (tungsten) (see MINEREngland, is situated on rising ground above the Med- ALOGY). The metal is prepared from the pure oxide way, and on the South-Eastern railway, forty-one WO3 by reduction with hydrogen in a platinum tube at miles (by rail) southeast of London and thirty-three a high temperature. It forms resplendent tin-white or northwest of Hastings. The Medway is crossed by a gray plates, or a dull black powder similar to hydrogenstone bridge, erected in 1775. The town consists chiefly reduced iron. It is more difficult to fuse than even of one long main street and a large number of suburban | MANGANESE, (q.v.) It is unalterable in ordinary air; villas. There are gunpowder mills on the banks of the oxygen and even chlorine act upon it only at a high Medway; and wool-stapling, brewing, and tanning are temperature. Hydrochloric and sulphuric acid do not carried on. The population of the urban sanitary dis- attack it. Nitric acid attacks it slowly, aqua regia trict (area 1,200 acres) in 1881 was 9,317 and is now readily, with formation of the trioxide WO. (1890) 11,000. TUNBRIDGE WELLS, an inland watering-place of England, chiefly in Kent but partly in Sussex, is situated in the midst of charming and picturesque scenery, on the South-Eastern railway and at the terminus of a branch line of the London, Brighton and South Coast railway, forty-six miles (by rail) southeast of London and five south of Tunbridge. It owes its popularity to its chalybeate spring and its romantic situation. The wells are situated near the Parade (or Pantiles), a walk associated with fashion since the time of their discovery. The town is built in a picturesquely irregular manner, and a large part of it consists of districts called " parks, occupied by villas and mansions. On Rusthall common, about a mile from the town, is the curiously shaped Toad Rock, and about a mile southwest the striking group called High Rocks. The population of the urban sanitary district (area 3,351 acres) is 24,308. The town owes its rise to the discovery of the medicinal springs by Dudley, Lord North, in 1606. Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I., retired to drink the waters at Tunbridge after the birth of her eldest son Charles. Soon after the Restoration it was visited by Charles II. and Catherine of Braganza. It was a favorite residence of Anne previous to her accession, and from that time became one of the special resorts of London fashion. TUNGUSES, a wide-spread Asiatic people, forming a main branch of the Mongol division of the MongolTartar family. They are the Tung-hu of the Chinese, probably a corrupt form of tonki or donki, that is, "men" or "people." The Russian form Tungus, wrongly supposed to mean "lake people," appears to occur first in the Dutch writer Massa (1612); but the race has been known to the Russians ever since they reached the Yenisei. The Tungus domain, covering many hundred thousand square miles in central and east Siberia and in the Amur basin, stretches from the Yenisei eastward to the Pacific, where it occupies most of the seaboard between Corea and Kamchatka. It also reaches the Arctic Ocean at two points, in the Nisovaya tundra, west of the Khatanga river, and in a comparatively small inclosure in the Yana basin over against the Liakhoff (New Siberia) Archipelago. But the Tunguses proper are chiefly centered in the region watered by the three large eastern tributaries of the Yenisei, which from them take their names of the Upper, Middle or Stoney, and Lower Tunguska. The Amur is still mainly a Tungus river almost from its source to its mouth; the Oroches (Orochus), Daurians, Birars, Golds, Manegrs, Sanagirs, Ngatkons, Nigidals, and some other aboriginal tribes scattered along the main stream and its affluents-the Shilka, Sungari, and Usuri-are all of |