INDEX TO UNITED STATES ARTICLE. Abolition, 6016, 6018. Bragg, B. 6024. 6014. Algonquin 5997. the, 6023, Indians, Alien laws, 6012. Animals, Domestic, 6042. Appomattox, 6026. 5988, 6015, 6021, 6026, 6027. Arnold, Benedict, 6008- Chester A., Assembly, 5989. Bonds, 6021, 6029, 6030, Buchanan, James, 6019- Buena Vista, 6017. Cambridge, 6008. Capitals of States, 6059. 5995, 6000, 6005, 6009. Civil Rights, 6028. Cleveland, Grover, 6030. battle of, 6043, et seq. 6013, 6015, 6018, 6020, De Soto, 5988. Douglas, Stephen A., Dred Scott, 6020. Erie, Lake, battle of, 19. Fisheries, 6031. 6002. Greene, Nath., Gen., treaty of, 6017. Harvey, Gov., 5989. 24. Hudson river, 5988,5996. Anne, Fredericksburgh, 6023- | Illinois, 6004, 6014. 24. Freedmen's Bureau, Free Soil party, 6018. Immigration, 6018,6078. Impressment, 6013. Iron-clad vessels, 6023. 15. Jackson, T. J., "Stone- 6008, 6010, 6012-13. Joliet, 6003. 6019. King William's War, Knights of Labor, 6030. Kosciusko, 6008. Legal Tender, 6024. Engine, Louisburg, 6002. Island, Madison, James, 6013. 5988, 5992, 6,000, 6005 et seq. Miller, Thos., 5994. Monroe, James, 6014. | Moravians, 6003. National Bank, 6014, Navy, 6009, 6012–13-14, New Jersey, 5998, 6011. North, Lord, 6008. Pacific Ocean, 5988. Pendleton, George H., 6025. Peninsula Campaign, 6001, 6004, 6007. Petroleum, 6027. 19. Pilgrim Fathers, 5989. 6022. Company, 5989-92. Govern- Princeton, battle of, Queen Anne's war, 6002. 5987. Slavery, 5889, 5993, 6003, Thames, battle of the, Thomas, Geo. H., 6025, Great with Van Twiller, Gov., 5997. 85. Vicksburgh, 6023-24. War with France, 6012. Ward, Artemas, 6007. Wilson's Creek, 6022. Yorktown, surrender UNIVERSALIST CHURCH, a religious body in the United States of America, especially in the New England States, which has for its distinguishing tenet the doctrine of the final salvation of all souls from sin through Christ. The pioneers of Universalism in America were Dr. George De Benneville, who taught from 1741 principally in Pennsylvania; Dr. Charles Chauncy, of the First Church, Boston (notably in The Salvation of All Men, published in 1784); Dr. Joseph Huntington, of Coventry, Conn. (whose Calvinism Improved was published after his death in 1796); John Murray, Elhanan Winchester, Caleb Rich, and, very specially, Hosea Ballou. Murray is, however, regarded as "the father of Universalism in America." In 1750 James Relly had avowed himself a Universalist, basing his belief on a theory quite peculiar: Murray, who had preached as a Methodist in England and Ireland, was Relly's most distinguished convert. In 1770 he came to America, and, under circumstances so strange that most Universalists regard them as providential, overcoming a deep reluctance, he preached at Good Luck, New Jersey, and organized a society," The Independent Christian Church," at Gloucester, Mass. Hosea Ballou -a convert from the Calvinist Baptists-took up the cause in 1790, and published the work that is regarded by Universalists as epoch-making, A Treatise on Atonement. The number of ministers increased and societies were formed. These in due time became the constituents of larger organizations, till a "New England convention" saw occasion, in 1803, to adopt a "profession of faith," which in three short articles avowed belief in the Bible as making known in a Divine revelation the nature of God, the mission of Christ, the final holiness of all souls, and the necessity of good works. In 1866 a general convention, composed of delegates from the State conventions, was incorporated. It has jurisdiction throughout the United States and Canada. It has a "Murray fund" of about $135,000. Under the auspices of the Universalist Church are the woman's centenary association," the "Universalist historical society," several organized charities, four colleges, three theological schools, and five academies the total value of the schools, including endowments, being hardly less than $3,000,000. It publishes eight periodicals. The Year Book for 1887 gives the following summary: I general convention; 22 State conventions; 945 parishes, 38,429 families; 696 churches, 35,550 members; 634 Sunday schools, 51,871 members; 789 church edifices; value above indebtedness, $7,493,927; 673 clergymen in fellowship and 120 licensed lay preachers. In 1889 there were in the United States 971 Universalist parishes, 41,474 families; 711 preachers; 721 churches, with 38,780 members; 657 Sunday schools, with 53,205 members; and 816 church edifices. total value of church property at the close of the year was $7,915,796. The UNIVERSITIES. The medieval Latin term universitas (from which the English word “university” is derived) was originally employed to denote any community or corporation regarded under its collective aspect. When used in its modern sense, as denoting a body devoted to learning and education, it required the addition of other words in order to complete the definition-the most frequent form of expression being "universitas magistrorum et scholarium" (or "discipulorum "). In the course of time, probably toward the latter part of the fourteenth century, the term began to be used by itself, with the exclusive meaning of a community of teachers and scholars whose corporate existence had been recognized and sanctioned by civil or ecclesiastical authority or by both. The university, in its earliest stage of development, appears to have been simply a scholastic guild-a spontaneous combination of teachers or scholars, and formed probably on the analogy of the trades guilds, which, in the course of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, are to be found springing up in most of the great European centers. And so the university, composed as it was to a great extent of students from foreign countries, was a com. bination formed for the protection of its members from extortion of the townsmen and the other annoy. ances incident in medieval times to residence in a foreign state. In order, however, clearly to understand the conditions under which the earliest universities came into existence, it is necessary to take account, not only of their organization, but also of their studies, and to recognize the main influences which, from the sixth to the twelfth century, served to modify both the theory and the practice of education. In the former century the schools of the Roman empire had been almost entirely swept away by the barbaric invasions. The latter century marks the period when the institutions which supplied their place-the episcopal schools attached to the cathedrals and the monastic schools-attained to their highest degree of influence and reputation. The cathedral school taught only what was supposed to be necessary for the education of the priest; the monastic school taught only what was supposed to be in harmony with the aims of the monk. But between the pagan system and the Christian system by which it had been superseded there yet existed something that was common to both; the latter, even in the narrow and meager instruction which it imparted, could not altogether dispense with the ancient text-books, simply because there were no others in existence. Under the rule of the Merovingian dynasty even these scanty traditions of learning declined throughout the Frankish dominions; but in England the designs of Gregory the Great, as carried out by Theodorus, Bede, and Alcuin, resulted in a great revival of education and letters. In order adequately to explain the remarkable development and novel character which that teaching assumed in the course of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, it is necessary to take account of the operation of certain more general causes to which the origin of the great majority of the earlier universities may in common unhesitatingly be referred. These causes are (1) the introduction of new subjects of study, as embodied in a new or revived literature; (2) the adoption of new methods of teaching which were rendered necessary by the new studies; (3) the growing tendency to organization which accompanied the development and consolidation of the European nationalities. It was at a considerable interval after the rise of the school at Salerno, about the year 1113, that Irnerius commenced at Bologna his lectures on the civil law. This instruction, again, was of a kind which the monastic and cathedral schools could not supply, and it also met a new and pressing want. But the distinctly secular character of this new study, and its intimate connection with the claims and prerogatives of the Western emperor, aroused at first the susceptibilities of the Roman see, and for a time Bologna and its civilians were regarded by the church with distrust and even with alarm. These sentiments were not, however, of long duration. In the year 1151 the appearance of the Decretum of Gratian, largely compiled from spurious documents, invested the studies of the canonist with fresh importance; and numerous decrees of past and almost forgotten pontiffs now claimed to take their stand side by side with the enactments contained in the Corpus Juris Civilis. It was necessary, accordingly, that the Decretum should be known and studied beyond the walls of the monastery or the episcopal palace, and that its pages should receive authorative exposition at some common center of instruction. Such a center was to be found in Bologna. The needs of the secular student and of the ecclesiastical student were thus brought for a time into accord, and from the days of Irnerius down to the close of the thirteenth century we have satisfactory evidence that Bologna was generally recognized as the chief school both of the civil and the canon law. | school at Notre Dame, and subsequently at the schools on the Montagne Sainte-Geneviève, of which he was the founder, and where he imparted to logic its new development. The schools out of which the university arose were those attached to the cathedral on the Île de la Cité, and presided over by the chancellor-a dignitary who must be carefully distinguished from the later chancellor of the university. But the flame which Abelard's teaching had kindled was not destined to expire. Among his pupils was Peter Lombard, who was bishop of Paris in 1159, and widely known to posterity But, though there was a flourishing school of study, as the compiler of the famous volume of the Sentences. it is to be observed that Bologna did not possess a uni- As the university of Paris became the model, not only versity until the close of the twelfth century. The for the universities of France north of the Loire, but "universities" at Bologna were really student guilds, also for the great majority of those of central Europe as modeled, not on the trade guilds which arose in Bolog-well as for Oxford and Cambridge, some account of its na in the thirteenth century, but on the Teutonic guilds early organization will here be indispensable. The which arose nearly a century earlier in northwestern original university, as already stated, took its rise enEurope, being essentially "spontaneous confederations tirely out of the movement carried on by teachers on the of aliens on a foreign soil." island, who taught by virtue of the license conferred by the chancellor of the cathedral. In the second decade of the thirteenth century, it is true, we find masters withdrawing themselves from his authority by repairing to the left bank of the Seine and placing themselves under the jurisdiction of the abbot of the monastery of Ste. Geneviève; and in 1255 this dignitary is to be found appointing a chancellor whose duty it should be to confer "licentia docendi" on those candidates who were desirous of opening schools in that district. But it was around the bestowal of this license by the chancellor of Notre Dame, on the Île de la Cité, that the university of Paris grew up. The previous stage of the students' academic career, that of bachelordom, had been one of apprenticeship for the mastership; and his emancipation from this state was symbolized by placing the magisterial cap (biretta) upon his head, a ceremony which, in imitation of the old Roman ceremony of manumission, was perfomed by his former instructor, "under whom" he was said to incept. He then gave a formal inaugural lecture, and, after this proof of magisterial capacity, was welcomed into the society of his professional brethren with set speeches, and took his seat in the master's chair. This community of teachers of recognized fitness did not in itself suffice to constitute a university, but some time between the years 1150 and 1170, the period when the Sentences of Peter Lombard were given to the world, the university of Paris came formally into being. Denifle considers that the "universities" at Bologna were at one time certainly more than four in number, and we know that the Italian students alone were subdivided into two-the Tuscans and the Lombards. In the centers formed by secession from the parent body, a like subdivision took place. At Vercelli there were four "universitates," composed respectively of Italians, English, Provençals, and Germans; at Padua there were similar divisions into Italians, French (i.e., Francigena, comprising both English and Normans), Provençals (including Spaniards and Catalans). When accordingly we learn from Odofred that in the time of the eminent jurist Azo, who lectured at Bologna about 1200, the number of the students there amounted to some ten thousand, of whom the majority were foreigners, it seems reasonable to conclude that the number of these confederations of students at Bologna was yet greater. With the middle of the thirteenth century, these various confederations became blended, for the first time, into one or other of the two great divisions already referred to-those of the Ultramontani and the Citramontani, Johannes de Varanis being rector of the former and Pantaleon de Venetiis of the latter. About the year I 200 were formed the two faculties of medicine and philosophy (or the arts), the former being somewhat the earlier. In the year 1371 the cardinal legate, Anglicus, compiled, as chief director of ecclesiastical affairs in the city, an account of the university, which he presented to Urban V. Of the professors there were twelve of civil law and six of canon law; three of medicine, three of practical medicine, and one of surgery; two of logic, and one each of astrology, rhetoric, and notarial practice. The professors of theology, who, as members of the religious orders, received no state remuneration, are unmentioned. Of the general fact that the early universities rose in response to new wants the commencement of the university of Paris supplies us with a further illustration. The study of logic, which, prior to the twelfth century, was founded exclusively on one or two meager compends, received about the year 1100, on two occasions, a powerful stimulus-in the first instance from the memorable controversy between Lanfranc and Berengar; in the second from the no less famous controversy between Anselm and Roscellinus. Dialectic was looked upon as "the science of sciences; " and when, somewhere in the first decade of the twelfth century, William of Champeaux opened in Paris a school for the more advanced study of dialectic as an art, his teaching was attended with marked success. Abelard taught in the first instance at the cathedral In comparing the relative antiquity of the universities of Paris and Bologna, it is difficult to give an unqualified decision. Apart from the broad differences in their organization, the very conception of learning, it will be observed, was different at Bologna from what it was at Paris. In the former it was entirely professional,designed, that is to say, to prepare the student for a definite and practical career in after life; in the latter it was sought to provide a general mental training, and to attract the learner to studies which were speculative rather than practical. In the sequel, the less mercenary spirit in which Paris cultivated knowledge added immensely to her influence and reputation. The univer sity became known as the great school where theology was studied in its most scientific spirit; and the decisions of its great doctors upon those abstruse questions which absorbed so much of the highest intellectual activity of the Middle Ages were regarded as almost final. The popes themselves, although averse from theological controversies, deemed it expedient to cultivate friendly relations with a center of such importance for the purpose of securing their influence in a yet wider field. Down therefore to the time of the great schism (1378), they at once conciliated the university of Paris and con sulted what they deemed to be the interests of the Roman see, by discouraging the creation of faculties of theology elsewhere. In their earliest stage, however, the importance of these new institutions was but imperfectly discerned alike by the civil and the ecclesiastical power, and the first four universities of Italy, after Bologna, rose into existence, like Bologna itself, without a charter from either pope or emperor. Of these the first were those of Reggio and Modena, both of which are to be found mentioned as schools of civil law before the close of the twelfth century. Both of them would seem to have been formed independently of Bologna, but the university of Vicenza was probably the outcome of a migration of the students from the former city, which took place in the year 1204. In the course of the century Vicenza attained to considerable prosperity; its student's were divided into four nations, each with its own rector; and in 1264 it included in its professoriate teachers, not only of the civil law, but also of medicine, grammar, and dialectic. The university of Padua was founded in 1222 as the direct result of the migration of a considerable number of students from Bologna. In the year 1228 the students of Padua were compelled by circumstances to transfer their residence to Vercelli, and the latter city guaranteed them, besides other privileges, the right to rent no less than five hundred lodging houses at a fixed rental for a period of eight years. At first Padua was a school only of the civil and canon law; and during the oppressive tyranny of Ezzelin (1237-1260) the university maintained its existence with some difficulty. But in the latter part of the century it incorporated the faculties of grammar, rhetoric, and medicine, and became known as one of the most flourishing schools of Italy and a great center of the Dominicans, at that time among the most active promoters of learning. The university of Naples was founded by the emperor Frederick II. in the year 1225, as a school of theology, jurisprudence, the arts, and medicine-his design being that his subjects in the kingdom of Naples should find in the capital adequate instruction in every branch of learning, and "not be compelled in the pursuit of knowledge to have recourse to foreign nations or to beg in other lands." The university never attained to much eminence, and after the death of Frederick came for a time altogether to an end, but was restored in 1258 by King Manfred. In 1266 its faculty of medicine was reconstituted, and from 1272-74 Thomas Aquinas was one of its teachers of theology. The two universities of Piacenza and Pavia stand in close connection with each other. The former is noted by Denifle as the earliest in Italy which was founded by virtue of a papal charter (February 6, 1248), although the scheme remained for a long time inoperative. At length, in the year 1398, the university was reconstituted by Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, duke of Milan, who in the same year caused the university of Pavia to be transferred thither. With the death of Galeazzo in 1402, this precarious activity suddenly came to an end; and in 1404 the university had ceased to exist. Even before Irnerius taught at Bologna, Pavia had been widely known as a seat of legal studies, and more especially of the Lombard law, although the evidence is wanting which would serve to establish a direct connection between this early school and the university which was founded there in 1361 by virtue of the charter granted by the emperor Charles IV. It shared again in the decline which overtook the university of Piacenza after the death of Giovanni Galeazzo, and during the period from 1404 to 1412 it altogether ceased to exist. But in October, 1412, the lect ures were recommenced, and the university entered upon the most brilliant period of its existence. Arezzo appears to have been known as a center of study so early as 1215, and its earliest statutes are assigned to the year 1255. After the year 1373 the school gradually dwindled, although it did not become altogether extinct until about the year 1470. The university of Rome (which is to be carefully distinguished from the school attached to the curia) owed its foundation (1303) to Boniface VIII., and was especially designed by that pontiff for the benefit of the poor foreign students sojourning in the capital. The university maintained its existence throughout the period of the residence of the popes at Avignon (see POPEDOM), and, under the patronage of Leo X., could boast, in 1514, of no less than eighty professors. Scarcely any of the universities in Italy in the fourteenth century attracted a larger concourse than that of Perugia, where the study chiefly cultivated was that of the civil law. The university received its charter as a studium generale from Clement V. in the year 1308, but had already, in 1306, been formally recognized by the civic authorities, by whom it was commended to the special care and protection of the "podestà." In common with the rest of the Italian universities, it suffered severely from the great plague of 1348-49; but in 1355 it received new privileges from the emperor, and, in 1362 its first college, dedicated to Gregory the Great, was founded by the bishop of Perugia. The university of Treviso, which received its charter from Frederick the Fair in 1318, was of little celebrity and but short duration. The circumstances of the rise of the university of Florence are unknown, but the earliest evidence of academic instruction belongs to the year 1320. The dispersion of the university of Bologna, in the March and April of the following year, afforded a favorable opportunity for the creation of a studium generale, but the necessary measures were taken somewhat tardily, and in the meantime the greater number of the Bolognese students had betaken themselves to Siena. The charter of foundation for Florence was accordingly not granted until May 31, 1349, when Clement VI. decreed that there should be instituted a studium generale in theology, jurisprudence, medicine, and every other recognized faculty of learning, the teachers to be professors who had obtained the degree of doctor or master either at Bologna or Paris, or 66 some other studium generale of celebrity." On January 2, 1364, the university also obtained the grant of imperial privileges from Charles IV. On February 14, 1388, it adopted a body of statutes which are still extant, and afford an interesting study in connection with the university history of the period. The university now entered upon that brilliant period in its history which was destined to so summary an extinction. In the year 1472, however, under the influence of Lorenzo de' Medici, it was decided that Florence was not a convenient seat for a university, and its students were removed to Pisa. The commencement of the university of Siena belongs to about the year 1241, but its charter was first granted by the emperor Charles IV., at the petition of the citizens, in the year 1357. It was founded as a studium generale in jurisprudence, the arts, and medicine. The imperial charter was confirmed by Gregory XII. in 1408, and the various bulls relating to the university which he subsequently issued afford a good illustration of the conditions of academic life in these times. Residence on the part of the students appears to have been sometimes dispensed with. The graduates were to be admitted to the same privileges as those of Bologna or Paris; and a faculty of theology was added to the curriculum of |