Champlain, -in short, this powerful league, some 17,000 strong, was able to sweep the country with its war parties north and south, east of the Mississippi. Thus New York State was the empire part of the New World long before white men visited its shores.

New York a Dutch Colony. Henry Hudson, an English navigator, had been employed by the Dutch East India Company to find a short route to the rich trading fields of Asia. In the spring of 1609, Hudson, with a small crew, in the ship called the Half Moon, sailed north of Norway and Sweden, but was soon stopped by the ice. Turning westward, he finally reached the coast of Maine and continued south as far as Chesapeake Bay; then, returning northward, he entered New York Bay and sailed up the Hudson River, hoping that he had found the desired passage to Asia. Finding himself unable to proceed more than a short distance above the present site of Albany, however, he returned, disappointed in his main quest, and sailed for home to report to his employers. Encouraged by Hudson's report, a company of Dutch merchants planned several trading expeditions. In 1614 the New Netherlands Company was formed1 and was granted a charter which gave it commercial control of that region of country lying "between New France and Virginia." The New Netherlands Company grew into the Dutch West India Company.

Dutch West India Company. This company, besides exclusive trading rights, was given power to plant and govern colonies. Through their agent, known as directorgeneral, the company exercised almost absolute control over the affairs of the settlers. When Peter Minuit came over as governor in 1626, a council of five was created to advise with and assist him. Governor Kieft, however,

1 Wilson, A History of the American People, Vol. I, p. 73.

with the knowledge that he alone was held responsible for the government of the province, reduced the number of the council to two, one other person and himself; and as he had two votes to the other member's one, he was practically an autocrat. The other officers of importance were the koopman, or commissary and secretary, and the schout, or sheriff and customs collector. The government was scarcely established, however, before the people began to demand a share in its operations. Kieft was forced to make some concessions, and promised greater privileges, but this promise was not fulfilled until the arrival of Stuyvesant. In 1647 Stuyvesant yielded to the demand for popular representation in so far as to order an election by the people of eighteen of their own number, from whom he was to choose nine as advisers. Since, however, this body met only when called upon, it was but a very slight beginning toward constitutional government. The government of the colony under all of its six directors-general, or governors, was rude and harsh, in spite of the fact that the settlers, coming largely from Holland, itself a republic, had liberal notions of political and religious liberty. These notions found expression in concessions wrung from the governors, in the establishment of churches, and in the maintenance of schools. As early as 1633 New Amsterdam had a school-teacher,1 and in 1638 a school tax was levied.

New York an English Colony. England based her claim to New Netherlands mainly upon the explorations of the Cabots. In 1664 Charles II of England conveyed to his brother James, the Duke of York, a tract of land which included New Netherlands. The same year an English fleet entered New York Bay, and Dutch rule in the colony

1 Adam Roelandson, the first school-teacher, came to New Netherlands in 1633. See Dexter, History of Education in United States, p. 12.

was practically at an end. From 1664 to 1676 New Netherlands, now named New York in honor of James, Duke of York, remained an English province, except for the brief period of about fifteen months (1673-1674), when it was again under Dutch rule, but was conveyed back to England by treaty at the close of the war with Holland. Though the temporary change of masters in 1664, which was made permanent by treaty in 1674, made the government of the province no less autocratic in form, it brought about a very real change in practice. "The despotism of Kieft and Stuyvesant was continued, only now, instead of the iron clutch, it was the stroke of velvet." When the government was formally organized, in 1674, Edmund Andros came out as governor and was assisted by a council of ten. The latter body was not chosen by the colonists, but the appeal for popular representation was too strong to be resisted, and in 1683 Governor Dongan, who had just succeeded Andros, called together the first popular assembly in the colony under English rule.

The Charter of Liberties. This body, made up of the governor, his council of ten, and eighteen delegates representing the people, met in October, 1683, and adopted, among other important legislative measures, a " charter of liberties," which was confirmed by the Duke of York. This charter made many important concessions, providing, among other things, for the meeting of a popular assembly, and granting to the representatives of the people the right to lay their own taxes. This liberality soon suffered a check, however, and in 1687,1 after the accession of the Duke of York to the throne as James II, the assembly was dissolved, not to be reëstablished until after the accession of William and Mary. In 1691 Governor Sloughter

1 Roberts, E. H., Vol. I, p. 193.

was sent out to take charge of the government of the colony. The assembly was reëstablished and promptly passed acts declaring the rights and privileges of the people and reaffirming the charter of liberties. These acts marked the beginning of a struggle between the assembly and the colonial governors that ended only with the outbreak of the Revolution. On the opening of hostilities New York promptly joined the patriot cause, and on July 9, 1776, the provincial congress formally took the name of Representatives of the State of New York.

Our Four Constitutions. New York State has had four constitutions. It had existed as a state for nearly a year (from July, 1776, to April, 1777) before its first constitution was adopted by the state assembly. This first constitution (the first draft of which is now in the custody of the commissioner of education at Albany), like most of the early state constitutions, was modeled somewhat closely upon that of England. The government consisted of a chief executive, of a legislature made up of two chambers, and of a system of courts. The constitution declared the people to be the only source of political power, and provided for a secret ballot and for complete religious liberty. In 1821 this constitution was thoroughly revised and new provisions were made for new conditions. In 1846 it was again revised and somewhat radical changes were made. Among other things it was provided that many officers heretofore chosen by the legislature or appointed by the governor should be elected by the people. In 1866 a convention was called to revise the constitution of 1846, but the people rejected the work of the convention, with the exception of the judiciary article.1 The constitution of 1846 remained thus almost unchanged

1 Roberts, E. H., Vol. II, p. 569.

1

until 1894, when a new revision, our present constitution, was made (see Appendix). In all these constitutions the main provisions have been substantially the same. The tendency, however, has been for the people to retain more power, delegating less and less to the governor and the legislature.

Fundamental Law. The constitution of the state is its fundamental law, which of course cannot in any way conflict with the constitution, treaties, or laws of the United States (p. 1). Like the federal constitution, the state constitution guarantees personal liberty, personal security, personal property. It also determines the right of suffrage and the time and manner of voting; it creates legislative bodies and defines their duties and limitations; it creates executive and judicial offices, defines their duties, and limits their action; it safeguards state and local credit, cares for public property and institutions, provides for free schools, divides the state into various districts for administrative purposes, and provides for its own amendment. The constitution is established by the people of the state as a chart to guide them in the administration of matters pertaining to the general welfare of the people of the state. It is drafted by representatives chosen by the people at the ballot. These representatives meet in convention and draw up the constitution. The various provisions are debated, amended, and passed in the convention, and finally printed and submitted to the people, who approve or disapprove at the ballot of the work of their representatives (the referendum).

Amendment and Revision. An amendment to the constitution may be proposed in the senate and assembly, and, if passed by two successive legislatures, must be submitted to the people for ratification (the referendum). If