digris, mineral green, Brunswick green, from copper. Metallic combinations containing sulphur are cinnabar (from quicksilver) and orpiment (from arsenic). The lake colors have tin or alum for their basis, and owe their tint to animal or vegetable coloring substances. Among them are the red lakes, prepared from cochineal, madder, and of inferior quality, from Brazil wood; the yellow from fustic, weld, &c.; the brown from several other coloring barks; finally, indigo, which, however, is entirely vegetable. In staining porcelain and glass, the metallic colors which are not driven off by heat, and are not easily changeable, are used. Gold containing tin gives a purple, nickel green, cobalt blue, iron and manganese black, uranium yellow, chrome green. (On the subject of painters' pigments, their preparation and application, see Bouvier's Manuel des jeunes Artistes et Amateurs en Peinture (Paris, 1827); Tingry's Painter's and Varnisher's Guide.)

PIGMY. (See Pygmy.)

PIKE (esor); a genus of fish, distinguished by having only one dorsal fin near the tail, a long, slender body, compressed laterally, and the lower jaw projecting beyond the upper. They are extremely voracious and destructive, and their digestive powers are as remarkable as their voracity: they not only feed on fish, but also destroy young aquatic birds, &c. They attain a great longevity, though many of the accounts given of the age which individuals of this genus have reached, must be received with great reservation. The common pike (E. lucius), when in season, is beautifully marked with a mixture of green and bright yellow spots. When out of season, however, these colors become dull. They grow to a large size, and are taken in great numbers as an article of food. Their flesh is white, firm and well tasted. They are caught either in what are termed crown nets, or by the hook. When the latter mode is used, the line must be very strong, and the hook fastened with wire. The bait generally used is a small fish. The Ohio pike (E. osseus) also attains a very large size, and is exceedingly abundant in the western rivers and lakes. This fish presents a formidable appearance, being covered with bony rhomboidal scales, forming a complete coat of mail. It is as voracious and destructive as the common species, and, like it, forms a palatable food, when not too large.

PIKE. The pike, in the middle ages, with the cross-bow, sword and battle-axe,

formed the chief weapons.of the infantry. The pike was from sixteen to eighteen feet long, consisting of a pole with an iron point. (See Lance.) Men armed with it were called pike-men. After the invention of guns, they gradually fell into disuse, and, in fact, can hardly be considered very effective arms in modern warfare, unless in the hands of excited insurgents, or of people fighting for their liberty, when every species of arms is effective, even flails and staves, wielded by monks. The Prussian Landsturm (q. v.) was armed with pikes in 1813, to be used in case no better arms were to be had. The Swiss first substituted the halberd (q. v.) for the pike, towards the fifteenth century. For some time, every company in the armies of Europe consisted of at least two thirds pike-men, and one third harquebussiers. (q. v.) Gustavus Adolphus, the great improver of the modern art of war, about 1630, omitted the pike-men in some regiments entirely. The invention of the bayonet (q. v.) drove it still more out of

use.

PIKE, Zebulon Montgomery, was born at Lamberton, in the state of New Jersey, Jan. 5, 1779. His father was a respectable officer in the army of the U. States. He entered the army while yet a boy, and served for some time as a cadet in his father's company, which was then stationed on the western frontiers of the U. States. At an early age, he obtained the commission of ensign, and, some time after, that of lieutenant. By a life of constant activity and exposure, he invigorated his constitution, and prepared himself for deeds of hardihood and adventure. When he entered the army, he had been instructed only in reading, writing, and a little arithmetic. By his own exertions, he acquired, almost without the aid of a master, the French and Latin languages, the former of which, it appears from his journal, he was able to write and speak with sufficient accuracy for the purposes of business. To these he afterwards added a competent knowledge of the Spanish. He also studied the elementary branches of mathematics, and became skilful in all the ordinary practical applications of that science. He seems, besides, to have had a general curiosity, to which no kind of knowledge was without interest: he read with avidity every book which fell in his way, and thus, without any regular plan of study, acquired a considerable stock of various information. Soon after the purchase of Louisiana, the government of the U. States determined upon taking meas

ures to explore their new territory, and the immense tract of wilderness included within its limits, in order to learn its geographical boundaries, its soil and natural productions, the course of its rivers, and their fitness for the purposes of navigation, and other uses of civilized life, the numbers, character and power of the tribes of Indians who inhabited this territory, and their dispositions towards the U. States. With these views, while captains Lewis and Clarke were sent to explore the unknown sources of the Missouri, Pike was despatched, on a similar expedition, for the purpose of tracing the Mississippi to its head. Aug. 9, 1805, Pike embarked at St. Louis, on his first expedition to the head of the Mississippi, and proceeded up the river, with twenty men, in a stout boat, provisioned for four months; but they were soon obliged to leave their boats, and proceed on their journey by land, or in canoes, which they built after leaving their large boat, and carried with them on their march. For eight months and twenty days, they were almost continually exposed to hardship and peril, depending for provisions upon the chase, and enduring the most piercing cold. They were sometimes for days together without food, and they frequently slept without cover upon the bare earth, or the snow, during the inclemency of a northern winter. During this voyage, Pike had no intelligent companion upon whom he could rely for advice or aid, and he literally performed the duties of astronomer, surveyor, commanding officer, clerk, spy, guide and hunter, frequently preceding the party for many miles, in order to reconnoitre, or rambling for whole days in search of deer, or other game, for provision, and then, returning to his men in the evening, hungry and fatigued, he would sit down in the open air, to copy, by the light of a fire, the notes of his journey, and to plan the course of the next day. Within two months after his return from this expedition, Pike was selected by general Wilkinson for a second expedition, to the interior of Louisiana, in order to acquire such geographical information as might enable government to enter into definitive arrangements for a boundary line between our newly-acquired territory and North Mexico. Winter overtook the party unprovided with any clothing fit to protect them from cold and storms. Their horses died, and, for weeks, they were obliged to explore their way on foot through the wilderness, carrying packs of sixty or seventy pounds weight, besides 12

VOL. X.

their arms, exposed to bitter cold, relying solely on the produce of the chase for subsistence, and often for two or three days altogether without food. Several of the men had their feet frozen, and all, except Pike and one other, were in some degree injured by the cold. After a three months' winter march, they explored their way to what they supposed to be the Red river. Here they were met by a party of Spanish cavalry, by whom Pike was informed, to his great astonishment, that they were not on the Red river, but on the Rio del Norte, and in the Spanish territory. Opposition to this force would have been idle, and he reluctantly submitted to accompany the Spaniards to Santa Fe, to appear before the governor. From Santa Fè, he was sent to the capital of the province of Biscay, to be examined by the commandant-general, where he was well received, and entertained for some time, after which he was sent on his way home, under the escort of a strong party of horse. He arrived, with his little band, at Natchitoches, July 1, 1807. The most vexatious circumstance attending this unexpected sequel to his expedition was the seizure of all his papers, except his private journal, by the Spanish government. He had been furnished with a complete set of mathematical instruments, and had made frequent and accurate observations. He had thus ascertained the geographical situation of the most important points with much precision, and had collected materials for an accurate map of a great part of the country which he traversed. Pike, upon his return, received the thanks of the government, and was immediately appointed captain, shortly after a major, and, upon the further enlargement of the army, in 1810, a colonel of infantry. A narrative of his two expeditions, accompanied by several valuable original maps and charts, was published by him, in octavo, in 1810. Immediately after the declaration of war, in 1812, Pike was stationed with his regiment upon the northern frontier, and, upon the commencement of the campaign of 1813, was appointed a brigadier-general. He was selected to command the land forces in an expedition against York, the capital of Upper Canada, and, April 25, sailed from Sackett's Harbor, in the squadron commanded by commodore Chauncey. On the 27th, he arrived at York, with about 1700 chosen men, and immediately prepared to land. As soon as the debarkation commenced, a body of British grenadiers was paraded on the shore, and the Glengary fencibles,

a local force, which had been disciplined with great care, appeared at another point. Large bodies of Indians were also seen in different directions, while others filled the woods which skirted the shore. General Sheaffe commanded in person. The landing was effected under a heavy fire of musketry and rifles from the Indians and British. General Pike immediately ordered a charge. After a short conflict, the enemy fled towards their works, and the Indians dispersed in every direction. The whole force, being now landed and collected, was led on by general Pike in person to the attack of the enemy's works. After carrying one battery by assault, they moved on towards the main works. The fire of the enemy was soon silenced by the artillery of the assailants, when a terrible explosion suddenly took place from the British magazine, which had been previously prepared for this purpose. Large stones were thrown in every direction with terrible force, and scattered destruction and confusion among the troops. General Pike was struck on the breast by a heavy stone, and mortally wounded. While the surgeons were carrying him out of the field, a tumultuous huzza was heard from the American troops: Pike turned his head with an anxious look of inquiry he was told by a sergeant, "The British union jack is coming down, general-the stars are going up." He heaved a heavy sigh, and smiled. He was then carried on board the commodore's ship, where he lingered for a few hours. Just before he breathed his last, the British standard was brought to him: he made a sign to have it placed under his head, and expired without a groan.

PILASTERS. (See Architecture, vol. i, p. 338.)

PILATE, Pontius, the successor of Valerius Gratus in the government of Judea, A. D. 27. He is said to have been born in Spain. Pilate was procurator, or præpositus, of Judea (Suetonius, Vespasian, 4), and, as was sometimes the case in a small province, or in a part of a large province, discharged the office of a governor; hence he had the power of punishing capitally (Tacit. Annal., xii, 23), which procurators did not usually possess, although Judea was a part of the province of Syria. He endeavored to introduce the Roman standards with the image of the emperor into Jerusalem, in violation of the Jewish usages, attempted to get possession of the treasure of the temple, and put to death some Galileans in the midst of the sacrifices an act which brought upon him the

hostility of Herod, tetrarch of Galilee. When Christ had been condemned to death by the Jewish priests, who had no power of inflicting capital punishments, he was carried by them to Pilate to be executed. Pilate, seeing nothing worthy of death in him, sent him, as a Galilean, to Herod, who, however, sent him back to Pilate. Yielding to the clamors of the Jews, the Roman governor finally ordered Jesus to be executed, but permitted Joseph of Arimathea to take his body and bury it. Pilate was afterwards removed from his office by Vitellius, prefect of Syria (A. D. 37), and, according to tradition, was banished by Caligula to Gaul, where he is said to have died, or committed suicide, at Vienne, A. D. 40. The Scala Santa, near the church of Santa Croce, in Rome, is said to be formed of the twentyeight steps of the marble palace of Pilate, and the devout therefore ascend it only on their knees. In the church itself is shown the inscription in Greek, Hebrew and Latin, placed by Pilate on the cross. It is written with red lead on cedar wood.

PILATRE DE ROZIER. (See Aëronautics.)

PILCHARD (clupea pilchardus); a species of fish resembling the herring, not only in form, but also in its migrations and stated returns. It is about nine inches in length, with large scales: the back is bluish, and the sides and belly silvery; the head is compressed, and the mouth without teeth. The upper angle of each of the gills is marked with a large black spot. These fish annually appear on the English coast during the summer, and are taken in immense quantities. The statements of the numbers caught at one time are almost beyond belief: thus it is said that, in 1767, there were at one time enclosed in the bay of Ives, in Cornwall, 7000 hogsheads, or 2,450,000. The average amount of the export of these fish from England is about 30,000 hogsheads. In some years, so few pilchards visit the coast, that great distress is occasioned among the fishermen, who mainly depend on the capture of these fish for subsistence. The dog-fish (a species of shark) are great enemies of the pilchards, following the shoals, and devouring them in amazing numbers.

PILES. (See Hemorrhoids.)

PILGRIMAGES. To visit places or objects with which interesting associations are connected is natural to every age and people. Athens or Rome, the ruins of a feudal castle, or the graves of the great or the beloved, attract our steps and awaken our sensibilities. The livelier the susceptibil

ity, the greater will be the interest. In ages, therefore, in which feeling predominates over reason, this interest will be greater than in calmer times. In early nations, therefore, we find a strong disposition to visit places which are hallowed by religious associations. In some religions, however, this trait appears stronger than in others, and the visiting of holy places is made an act of particular merit. The injunction of pilgrimages is common in the religions of the East. How important an event is the pilgrimage to Mecca in the life of a pious Mohammedan! (See Kaaba, Mecca, Hadjy, and Mohammed.) With the Christians, pilgrimages became more frequent as more honor was paid to the relics of martyrs or saints; and the simple piety of the early devotees was particularly gratified by visiting the sepulchre of the Savior, and the spots where he had lived, taught and suffered. The Saracens permitted the Christian pilgrims to visit the holy sepulchre without molestation; but, when the rude Turks took possession of Palestine, it was very different, and the repeated complaints of pilgrims returning from Jerusalem occasioned the excitement which led to the crusades. (q. v.) Pilgrimages were performed in the middle ages to many different places. Some spots, however, attracted a much larger concourse than others, the credulity of the time associating with them peculiarly great or numerous miracles, or peculiarly extensive indulgences (q. v.) being granted to the pilgrims who visited them. This was the case, for instance, with Rome, Compostella and Tours. Pilgrimages were, in fact, so common, that the learned Rühs considers them as a great means of communication between the various nations of the middle ages, and as having promoted the diffusion of many arts and improvements of various kinds, at a time when travelling was dangerous, when no newspapers existed, and, in fact, the peaceful intercourse of nations was so little developed. The following instance will show to what extent pilgrimages were performed. In 1428, in the reign of Henry VI, there went to the shrine of St. James of Compostella, in Spain, from London 280 pilgrims, from Bristol 200, Weymouth 122, Dartmouth 90, Yarmouth 60, Jersey 60, Plymouth 40, Exeter 30, Liverpool 24, Ipswich 20-in the whole, 926 pilgrims from 11 towns. Catholics still continue to make pilgrimages, but by no means to the same extent as formerly, in times of less reflection and more enthusiasm. Governments, however, have discouraged

the concourse of pilgrims, particularly assemblages of several days' continuance, which still exist in some instances. The licentiousness which Burckhardt describes as prevailing among the pilgrims to Mecca (see Kaaba) agrees perfectly with what is known of the general pilgrimages of Christians. Pilgrims still continue to travel to Rome, where they are provided for in establishments founded by pious persons. The last numerous assemblage of pilgrims at Rome was in the year 1825, when pope Leo XII proclaimed a jubilee. (See Jubilee.)

PILLAU; a seaport of East Prussia, eight leagues from Königsberg, at the southern extremity of a narrow peninsula formed by the Baltic and the FrischeHaff; lat. N. 54° 33′ 39′′; lon. E. 19° 55'. The port is safe and commodious, and all vessels going to Königsberg or Elbing stop here. A fort protects the place; 4518 inhabitants. Much fishing is carried on here.

PILLNITZ; a palace of the king of Saxony, on the right bank of the Elbe, two leagues south of Dresden. The court remains here annually for some time. Its situation is very beautiful. In history, Pillnitz is famous for a meeting of the emperor Leopold II, Frederic William II of Prussia, the count of Artois, the exminister Calonne, and several other personages, from August 25 to 27, 1791. A treaty of offensive alliance was not concluded, but preliminaries were agreed on for a defensive alliance, between Austria and Prussia, which was settled at Berlin, Feb. 7, 1792. The brothers of the king of France received, Aug. 27, only an assurance from Prussia and Austria, that they hoped all the powers whose assistance had been asked for would be ready to contribute, according to their means, to restore the royal family, and to establish a government founded on the rights of sovereigns, and the welfare of the people, in which case Austria and Prussia would join them. In the mean time, they would give orders that their troops should hold themselves in readiness to act. Six secret articles are also said to have existed. (See Scholl's Histoire des Traités de Paix, vol. iv.) The French considered the Pillnitz convention as the basis of the coalition (q. v.) of Europe against France, which greatly irritated them.

PILLORY; a frame of wood erected on posts, with movable boards, and holes through which are put the head and hands of a criminal for punishment. In this situation criminals in England were