are 4 copper, 4 quicksilver, 12 lead, and 680 silver mines, and 70 gold mines and washings. The richest silver mines are those of Pasco and Lauricocha; they lie 13,000 feet above the level of the sea, and yield $2,000,000 annually. The mines of Chota, or Gualgayoc, in Truxillo, are richer than those of Potosi; they are 13,385 feet above the level of the sea, and yield about 44,000 pounds of silver annually. Those of Huantajaya, in Arica, in a dry desert, yield yearly 52,000 pounds. Two masses of native silver have been found here, weighing, one 225, the other 890 pounds. Gold is obtained in Tarma, from the mines of Pataz and Huilies, and in the washings on the banks of the Upper Marañon. According to the traditions of the Peruvians, the early civilization of their country was the work of Manco Capac (q. v.), who reclaimed their ancestors from barbarism, and introduced art, law and religion among them. According to Garcilaso de la Vega (q. v.), this event occurred towards the beginning of the twelfth century. The successors of Manco Capac continued to reign until the arrival of the Spaniards in the country. Atahualpa, the fifteenth inca (q. v.), was defeated and put to death by Pizarro (q. v.), who, with Almagro (q. v.), had entered Peru at the head of a small Spanish force, in 1532, and rapidly reduced it to submission. Of the ancient Peruvians, we have yet some remarkable monuments remaining, such as their roads (called by the Spaniards Camini del Inca), which trayersed the empire in every direction, fortresses, temples and palaces, which prove their mechanical skill. They were acquainted with the arts of mining, of working in gold and silver, of polishing precious stones, and of sculpture. Their agricultural labors, and their manufactures of wool, &c., prove their intelligence and industry. (See Garcilaso de la Vega's Historia de las Antiguedades y Conquista del Peru.) Pizarro, having put the inca to death, took possession of Cusco and its immense treasures The cruelties which were practised by the Spaniards, finally came to the ears of Charles V, who caused a code of laws to be drawn up for the government of the American conquests, and established an audiencia at Lima, the president of which was appointed governor of Peru, in 1543. Still the natives were subject to enormities of the most atrocious character, as long as the first murdering and robbing conquerors survived; and, for a long series of generations afterwards, to the most arbitrary and op valleys. (See Andes, and South America.) The low districts on the coasts, which are supplied with water, or which lie on the streams and rivers, are fruitful. Besides the streams which flow down the western declivities of the Andes into the Pacific ocean, the Marañon or Amazon (q. v.), and the Ucayale, a tributary of the Amazon, are the principal rivers. The great plain, called the Pampas del Sacramento (see Pampas), on the Ucayale, is remarkable for its fertility. Earthquakes and sand-spouts sometimes commit terrible ravages. In the high lands the climate is severe, but healthy Among the animal and vegetable productions of Peru are lamas, vicuñas, guanacos, pearl muscles, purple-fish, cochineal, silk-worms, corn, wine, tobacco, sugar, coffee, cocoa, vanilla, cotton, Peruvian bark, Peruvian balsam, indigo, ginger, cinnamon, &c. Peru is particularly rich in gold and silver. Humboldt reckoned the value of the quantity of these metals, obtained yearly, at more than $6,000,000. (See Mines, and South America.) Platina, copper, tin, lead, quicksilver, precious stones, salt, alum, saltpetre, coal, sulphur, &c., are also found. The capital of Peru is Lima. The republic is divided into seven intendencies Arequipa, Cusco, Guamanga, Guanca Velica, Lima, Tarma and Truxillo,-which are subdivided into provinces. An extensive tract of country in the north-eastern part, and not included in these divisions, is inhabited by independent Indians. The population is composed of European Spaniards, creoles (q. v.), metis or mestizoes (q. v.), Indians, negroes and mulattoes. The creoles are, since the revolution, the most influential class. The Indians and mestizos form the most numerous body. By the constitution of 1828, slavery is totally abolished, and a slave brought into the country becomes free. The wealth of Peru has been entirely owing to its mines, the richness of which, with the sterility of the soil, has prevented much attention being paid to agriculture. The whale fishery on the coasts, and the commerce of the country, are almost entirely in the hands of the Anglo-Americans of the U. States, and of the English. Its long extent of coast, with numerous bays, harbors and road-steads, affords great facilities for commerce. The exports of Peru are copper, cocoa, Peruvian bark, wool (of sheep and the vicuña), and chinchilla furs; imports, silk goods, linen, woollen goods, wine, cottons, &c. Mining operations are impeded by the deficiency of quicksilver and wood; there pressive acts of a cruel government. The timid and unwarlike Peruvians were repeatedly driven to rebel against their hard masters; one of the most celebrated of these revolts was that headed by Tupac Amaru, in 1780. (See Tupac Amaru.) In 1718, the province of Quito, which had previously formed a part of the viceroyalty of Peru, was annexed to New Grenada; - and, in 1778, the provinces of Upper Peru (see Bolivia) were attached to the government of Buenos Ayres. On the invasion of the Spanish peninsula by the French, in 1808, the first symptoms of revolt began to show themselves in Peru, as in the other Spanish-American colonies; but the Spaniards were powerful enough to repress this spirit until 1821, when general San Martin, at the head of a Chilean force (see Chile), obtained possession of Lima, and the independence of Peru was declared (July 15). August 3d, general San Martin was declared protector of the new republic, with the supreme power, civil and military. Callao capitulated September 19. The Spanish generals La Serna and Canterac retreated to the mountains, and kept possession of Cusco. In March, 1822, the protector assembled a Peruvian congress at Lima, composed principally of his partisans, which drew up the plan of a constitution: it provided that the Catholic religion should be the religion of the state; that the legislative authority should be vested in the representatives of the people; that the freedom of the press, and the liberty of person and property, should be secured; the abolition of the slave-trade, of the tribute exacted from the Indians, and of the compulsory labor to which they had been subject, was provided for; a senate was to nominate to the executive authorities the civil and ecclesiastical officers, and, in extraordinary cases, convoke a congress. Much dissatisfaction was produced by this plan, as being too monarchical in its principles. In 1823, San Martin retired, and Lamar (q. v.) was placed at the head of the government, the marquis of Torretagle being governor of the capital. Meanwhile La Serna had maintained himself, and collected new forces in Upper Peru, and defeated the republican troops at Moquegna, Jan. 20, 1823. But the divisions of the Spanish commanders, La Serna, Valdez, Canterac and Olaneta, saved Peru. Riva-Aguero, who had assumed the presidency, called on the Colombians for assistance. General Sucre was despatched to the aid of the Peruvians; he compelled Canterac to evacuate Lima, which had fallen into his hands, and advanced to Upper Peru, while Bolivar entered Lima, and received the title of libertador, with supreme military power. Bolivar obligéd RivaAguero (who had still continued to exercise his authority in Truxillo) to surrender and leave the country, and, in November, the Peruvian congress adopted a constitution on the model of that of the U. States of North America, which was not to have effect until the expiration of Bolivar's dictatorship. La Serna had, meanwhile, collected a large army in Upper Peru, but was prevented from attempting any thing against the patriots, by the opposition of Olaneta, who was at the head of the absolutists, while La Serna had declared himself a constitutionalist. Torretagle, who had been declared president of the republic, was at the head of a party, which was working in secret against the influence of the liberator. Whilst things were in this state, the garrison of Callao (Feb. 5, 1824) hoisted Spanish colors, and opened the fortress to the Spanish ships of war which were blockading the harbor. In this emergency, congress conferred unlimited civil and military power on the dictator, who evacuated Lima on the 27th. Canterac entered the capital on the 29th, and Torretagle now joined the royalists. The war between the royalists was again renewed, and was again the means of saving Peru. Bolivar, having artfully drawn Canterac into the plains of Junin, gained some advantages over him on the 6th of August, and compelled the royalists to evacuate Lima; general Rodil, however, threw himself into Callao. After the patriots had suffered several disasters, Sucre fell back into an advantageous position, at Ayacucho, and determined to await the enemy. Dec. 9, 1824, the patriots, 5780 strong, were attacked by a royalist force of 9310, and gained a complete victory. La Serna and Valdez were made prisoners, and Canterac signed a capitulation on the field, by which it was stipulated that the royalist forces should lay down their arms, and evacuate the whole of the country, to the Desaguadero. The battle of Ayacucho (q. v.) was decisive of the fate of South America. General Rodil refused to surrender Callao, and that förtress held out till Jan. 22, 1826, when it was reduced by famine. Olaneta still maintained himself, for a time, in Upper Peru, but, in 1825, was totally routed by general Sucre. Of the events which followed in Peru, the suspicious conduct of Bolivar, and the constitution which he attempted to force upon the country, we have given an ac count in the articles Bolivar and Bolivia. The general disaffection and suspicion which had been excited among the patriots of Peru, resulted in the revolution of January, 1827, which was effected by the cooperation of the Colombian troops left in Peru, who were unwilling to serve as the instruments of imposing a yoke on their Peruvian allies, and were fearful of the designs of Bolivar on the liberties of their own country. The Bolivian constitution was abolished, and the congress, which convened in May, declared the Peruvian constitution of 1823 to be in force, and chose general Lamar president of the republic. April 19, 1828, a new constitution was adopted, to be in force until 1833, when a general convention is to be summoned to revise and amend it. In June, the Bolivians (who were equally disgusted with the code which had been imposed on them by Bolivar) requested aid from the Peruvians, to enable them to throw off the yoke; and colonel Gamarra was despatched, at the head of a Peruvian army, to their assistance. He deposed Sucre, who had been chosen president for life. (See Bolivia.) These measures were followed by a declaration of war against Peru by Bolivar. Lamar accordingly entered the Colombian territory at the head of a large force, but was defeated, February 29, 1829, by general Sucre at Tarqui. The imbecility which Lamar had manifested on this occasion, gave rise to a conspiracy against him, and he was deposed by general La Fuente, June 29. August 31, the congress met, and chose general Gamarra president. The hostilities with Colombia were terminated by the treaty of September 22, 1829.— See Hall's Journal written on the Coasts of Chile, Peru, and Mexico; Stevenson's Twenty Years' Residence in South America (London, 1825, 3 vols.); the American Annual Register (vols. 1, 2, and 3). PERUGIA; a delegation or province of Italy, in the States of the Church, including the ci-devant Perugino, watered by the Tiber and the lake of Perugia; population, 183,000. PERUGIA (anciently Perusia, and Perusium); a city of Italy, capital of a delegation in the States of the Church, twentyseven miles north-north-west of Spoleto, sixty south-east of Florence, seventy-two north of Rome; lon. 12° 17′ E.; lat. 43° 6 N.; population, 30,000; a bishop's see. It stands on the summit of a hill, near the Tiber, having one of the most delightful situations in all Italy. It is tolerably well built, and contains forty-five churches and forty-eight convents, which are by no means elegant, several hospitals, and a university on a small scale. It has manufactures of velvet and silk stuffs, and considerable traffic in corn, cattle, wool, silk, oil and brandy. The surrounding country is very rich. The citadel was built by pope Paul III. Perugia was, in the times of the Romans, one of the twelve principal Etruscan cities. It suffered much by the irruptions of the barbarians, and again by the contests between the Guelfs and Gibelines. (See Guelfs.) PERUGIA, Lake; the ancient Thrasymene. (q. v.) PERUGINO. Pietro Vanucci, surnamed Il Perugino, the founder of the Roman school of painting, born at Città della Pieve, in 1446, received the rights of citizenship in Perugia (whence his surname), and, at an early age, distinguished himself by his works. Bonfigli and Pietro della Francesca were probably his masters. His pictures have much grace, and are particularly successful in female and youthful figures. The turns of his heads are noble, and his coloring is lovely. A certain hardness and dryness in the forms, and poverty in the drapery, were the faults of his age, from which he did not wholly escape. Tranquillity and childish simplicity characterize his works, which are defective in invention. His frescoes are softer and in better keeping than his other productions, as the fine specimens in Perugia, Rome, Bologna and Florence prove. Raphael is his most celebrated disciple. PERUKE. (See Wig.) PERUVIAN BARK. (See Bark.) PERVIGILIA; those feasts of the ancients which were celebrated during the night in honor of certain deities, particularly Ceres, Venus, and Apollo. same name was given to nocturnal banquets in general. The PESTALOZZI, John Henry, one of the most distinguished men of modern times for his efforts in the cause of education, was born January 12, 1746, at Zurich, in Switzerland, and was educated by pious relations, after the death of his father, who had been a physician. Even when very young, he manifested strong religious feelings, a quick sense of right, compassion towards the poor, and a fondness for young children. He had a great inclination for the study of languages and theology; but, after an unsuccessful attempt to preach, he studied law. Some treatises of his on preparation for a profession, and on Spartan legislation, and last obliged him to give up an undertaking which was too great for the means of an individual. In 1798, the directory of Switzerland invited him to establish a house of education at Stanz for poor children. He became here the teacher, father, and, we must add, servant to eighty children, of the lowest classes. But war, and the efforts of a party unfriendly to his scheme, destroyed this establishment after a year. Pestalozzi now took charge of a school at Burgdorf, where he also received pupils, who paid for their instruction, so that he was ena the translation of some speeches of Demosthenes, which he published, were proofs of his diligence and talents. But Rousseau's Émile filled him with a dislike for the habits of a learned life, and for the general system of education in Europe; and a dangerous illness, occasioned by excessive study, induced him, immediately after his recovery, to burn the greater part of the extracts and collections which he had made during his study of the history of his country and of law, and to become a farmer. He studied agriculture with a farmer near Berne, and then bought a piece of land in the neigh-bled to employ able assistants. A publicaborhood, built a house, which he called Neuhof, and began the life of a farmer when he was twenty-two years old. He soon married, and became concerned,, through his wife's relations, in a calico manufactory. In these situations, he became acquainted with the moral wretchedness of the lowest classes, and, in 1775, began his career of instruction by the admission of the children of paupers into his house. He soon saw himself surrounded by more than fifty children, to whom he was a teacher and father. He had no aid from others, and, though he worked with the children when he was not employed in teaching them, or in his private affairs, he had not the practical talent necessary to turn the labor of his little workmen to account. His philanthropic and noble self-denial was derided; his confidence was abused; his own affairs declined; and he was generally considered as a well-meaning enthusiast. But he had formed his purpose, and was not to be diverted from it; and, amidst straitened circumstances, he collected that knowledge of the state of the lower classes which is set forth so admirably in his novel Lienhardt und Gertrud (1781, 4 vols.), a work which has exerted a remarkable influence. The description in this work of the school at Bannal contains many characteristic traits of Pestalozzi's life, at that time, at Neuhof. To illustrate this novel, he wrote, in 1782, Christoph und Else, besides Abendstunden eines Einsiedlers, in Iselin's Ephemeriden, in which he gives the first account of his method; a Schweizerblatt für das Volk (1782 and 1783); a Treatise on Legislation and Infanticide, and Inquiries into the Course of Nature in the Developement of Man (1797),—which are full of thought (all in German). The latter work was written at a time when Pestalozzi had suffered many vexations and misfortunes. The want of all support at tion on the application of his method by mothers, which appeared in 1801, under the title How Gertrude teaches her' Children (in German), and the elementary books, Book of Mothers (in German), and the Anschauungslehre der Zahlenverhältnisse (the Doctrine of Numerical Relations conveyed by Perceptions of Form*), found well-disposed readers. But Pestalozzi brought new vexations on himself by mingling in politics. He was a decided democrat and man of the people, who, in 1802, sent him as their delegate to the first consul; and, in 1802, he published his Views on Subjects to which the Legislature of Helvetia should chiefly direct its Attention, which made the higher classes unfriendly to him. His institution, in the mean while, flourished. In 1804, he removed, with his school, to MünchenBuchsee, where he entered into a nearer connexion with Fellenberg, and, in the same year, to Yverdun (q. v.), where he occupied the castle given to him by government. Pestalozzi's method has become the subject of animated discussion since the beginning of the nineteenth century, partly owing to the opposition which new schemes always meet with, and partly to the extravagance of his admirers. Pestalozzi was a man of great genius and depth of feeling, full of the spirit of self-sacrifice, devoted to the noble purpose of aiding mankind in the most effectual way, by the instruction of the poor and abandoned, in which he was warmly engaged until his death. He loved liberty, and believed that its cause would be most promoted by the education of the most neglected. His genius, moreover, enabled him to devise the most effectual plans for obtaining this end. But he was not sufficiently practical properly to direct the economy of a large establishment for instruction, and *Not an exact translation, but as near as we can give it, without a long paraphrase. to employ to the most advantage the talents of many teachers. He was void of worldly prudence, and this want was an abundant source of vexations to him and others throughout his life. The idea of communicating all instruction by immediate address to the sensations or conceptions, and effecting the formation of the child by constantly calling all his powers into exercise, instead of making him a mere passive recipient, selecting the subjects of study in such a way that each step shall best aid the further progress of the pupil, is original with him. It is not the acquisition of skill in reckoning, reading, writing, drawing, singing, &c., but the exercise of the powers of the child by means of these subjects, which Pestalozzi makes the object of elementary education. The principles of his method are clearly developed in his Wochenschrift für Menschenbildung (3d and 4th vols., 1810 and 1812). This publication, with the reply of his assailant, Niederer, to the Report on Pestalozzi's Institution at Yverdun (addressed to the diet in 1810), Gruner's Letters from Burgdorf (in German, in 1806), and Johannsen's Criticism of Pestalozzi's Method (in German, 1804), afford a satisfactory view of his system. He himself did not consider his system entirely complete. From Spain, France, Prussia, and many other countries, testimonies of honor and regard were sent to him from the governments; and his pupils have spread as far as European civilization extends His exterior was extremely simple. His negligent black dress, his broad Swiss dialect, and blunt manners, without any kind of ceremony, showed the honest Swiss. In 1818, he undertook a new edition of his complete works, the proceeds of which he destined for a new school for poor children. He died February 17, 1827, at Brugg, in Aargau. See his autobiography, The Scenes of my Life while at the Head of my Institutions of Education at Burgdorf and Yferdun (Leipsic, 1826); also Ed. Biber's Memoirs on Pestalozzi and his Plan of Education (London, 1831). PESTH, OF PEST (anciently Transacincum); a city of Hungary, on the Danube, opposite to Buda, with which it is connected by a bridge of boats three quarters of a mile long; 90 miles south-east of Presburg, 113 south-east of Vienna; lon. 19° 14′ E.; lat. 47° 32′ N.; population, 61,502, of which 45,000 are Catholics, Buda is the residence of the viceroy, and accounted the capital of Hungary, yet Pesth is the seat of the high courts of jus tice, and the place of meeting for the diet. It is situated on a plain; the streets are tolerably spacious and regular, and the houses substantial, but not elegant. It contains eleven Catholic, one Lutheran, one Reformed, and two Greek churches, two synagogues, four convents, three hospitals, a university, a gymnasium, a public library, and a royal museum. The university was transferred hither from Buda in 1784, and is the only one in Hungary. It has four faculties, and is richly endowed, having a library of 60,000 volumes, a botanic garden, an observatory, &c. The number of regular professors is 43, and the number of students is about 1000; and in the gymnasium, 701. The lectures in the university are generally given in Latin. Pesth is the most populous and most commercial town in Hungary. The Danube affords means of intercourse with a considerable tract of country. There are four annual fairs, which are numerously attended. The manufactures comprise silk, cotton, leather, jewellery, musical instruments, and tobacco. PESTILENCE. (See Plague, and Spasmodic Cholera.) PESTUM, OF PESTO. (See Pastum.) PETAL; among botanists, an appellation given to the flower leaves, in opposition to the folia, or common leaves. PETALITE; a mineral first discovered in the mine of Uto, in Sweden, and interesting as having led to the discovery of a new alkali. (See Lithia.) It is possessed of the following properties: massive; fracture splintery and imperfectly conchoidal; lustre resinous; color white, occasionally tinged with red or blue; translucent; tough; hardness the same with that of feldspar; specific gravity, 2.439. It consists of silex 79.21, alumine 17.22, and lithia 5.76. If exposed to a high degree of heat before the blow-pipe, it becomes glassy, semi-transparent and white; but melts with difficulty, and only on the edges. When gently heated, it emits a blue phosphorescent light. This rare substance is found in Massachusetts, at Bolton, in a lime quarry, associated with pyroxene, sphene and scapolite. PETARD, in the art of war; a metallic engine, somewhat resembling a highcrowned hat, which is loaded with powder. Its use is, in a clandestine attack, to break down gates, bridges, barriers, &c., to which it is hung, by means of a wooden plank attached to it. It is also used in countermines, to break through the enemy's galleries, and give their mines vent. PETECCHIE. (See Plague.) |