DEBS DEBT He Jersey, Feb. 27, 1867. He was admitted to the bar of South Carolnina in 1843, but did not practice, engaging in journalism instead. He was possessed of an aptitude for statistical research, and much of his writing was in that line. was editor of the Southern Quarterly Review in 1844-45. In 1845 he established, in New Orleans, the Commercial Review, which he continued in that city until the Civil War. He was appointed professor of political economy in the University of Louisiana in 1848; in 1853 he became superintendent of the United States census, holding the office until 1855. He was an active Southern partisan, and took a prominent part in secession politics. He resumed the publication of his Commercial Review in Nashville, Tennessee. Among his collected writings are The Industrial Resources and Statistics of the Southwest (1853) and Statistical Review of the United States (1856). DEBS, EUGENE V., an American labor leader; born in Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1855, and educated in the public schools, and when 16 years old began work as a painter and railroad fireman. When 26 years old he was chosen a member of the state legislature, where he secured the passage of several laws in the interest of labor. He was grand secretary and treasurer of the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen for 14 years. Always an earnest advocate of a federation of railway men, the United Order of Railway Employees was formed through his efforts, and the American Railway Union was organized by him in Chicago, June 20, 1893. It prospered, and became the largest body of railway men in the world, and won a victory in its strike against the Great Northern railway. In July, 1894, the American Railway Union, under Debs's guidance, espoused the cause of the Pullman Palace Car Company's workmen in their strike for higher wages, and after failing to secure arbitration, ordered a boycott of all Pullman cars, which precipitated a great railroad strike, with Chicago as a storm-center. Cars were derailed or burned and trains stopped by strike. sympathizers until President Cleveland ordered Federal troops to the scenes of disturbance to enforce the decrees of the United States Courts, and to prevent interference with the mail service and interstate commerce. Then traffic was gradually resumed with new men and the strike called off. Debs and his fellow-directors of the American Railway Union were indicted for conspiracy, but the trial jury disagreed. They were sentenced to six months in jail by Judge Woods of the United States circuit court, for contempt of court in violating an injunction. An appeal was taken to the United States supreme court, but the decision was confirmed. Upon his release, Debs again engaged in labor organization work. The whole subject of the strike was ably dealt with in the Report of the Railway Strike Commission. *DEBT, UNITED STATES NATIONAL. The principal of the public debt at the outbreak of the war was only $64,842,288; the net ordinary receipts about $55,000,000 per annum. To meet *Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company. 1005 the expenses of the war, Congress passed the act of July 17, 1861, in accordance with the suggestions of the Secretary of the Treasury, under which there were issued $50,000,000 bonds, redeemable in 20 years, bearing 6 per cent interest; $139,999,750 treasury notes, called 7.30's, payable in three years, bearing 7 per cent interest; and $50,000,000 Treasury notes, payable on demand, not bearing interest. The latter were subsequently increased to $60,000,000. These loans were favorably received, and were taken at a little less than par in gold by the state banks, and $189,321,350 of them were refunded into 20-year 6-per-cent bonds, authorized by act of Aug. 5, 1861. When Congress convened on Dec. 2, 1861, the financial condition of the government was more alarming than at any period during the war. The above-mentioned act of July 17, 1861, gave the Secretary of the Treasury ample authority to borrow money on the credit of the government, but he could not deal with the system of state banks then existing in the several states. He was forbidden by the Subtreasury Act of 1846 to receive notes of state banks, and was required to receive into and pay from the Treasury only the coin of the United States; but by the act of Aug. 5, 1861, he was permitted to deposit, to the credit of the Treasurer of the United States, in such solvent specie-paying banks as he might select, any moneys obtained from loans, the moneys thus deposited to be withdrawn only for transfer to the regularly authorized depositories, or for the payment of public dues, as he might deem expedient. expedient. He had, however, no authority to receive from individuals or banks any money but coin. The coin received from the Boston, New York and Philadelphia banks in payment of their subscriptions to subscriptions to the government loans to the amount of nearly $150,000,000, had to be sent all over the United States to meet public obligations, and when thus scattered was not readily returned to the banks, thus exhausting their resources and their ability to loan again. Mr. Chase, the Secretary of the Treasury, in December, 1862, estimated that there would be needed for the support of the government to June 30, 1863, $277,000,000; for the following year $900,000,000. Thereupon Congress undertook to provide this vast amount, mainly by borrowing, and passed an act, approved Feb. 25, 1862,—the most important loan measure enacted during the war,-authorizing the issue of $150,000,000 United States legal tender notes, of which $50,000,000 were to be in lieu of the demand Treasury notes already described, and the issue of $500,000,000 bonds, redeemable, at the pleasure of the United States, after 5 years, and payable 20 years from date, bearing 6 per cent interest. These were what were known as the 5-20 bonds. The amount of these bonds was subsequently increased $11,000,000. An act approved July 11, 1862, authorized an additional issue of $150,000,000 legal tender notes. The act of March 3, 1863, authorized the issue of $900,000,000 of bonds, redeemable in 10 years, and payable in 40 years, known as the 10-40's, bearing 5 per cent interest, specifically exempt from taxation by or under state or municipal authority; also, $400,000,000 interest-bearing Treasury notes, $150,000,000 more of the legaltender notes, and $50,000,000 of fractional notes. The act of June 30, 1864, authorized an additional loan of $400,000,000, the rate and period to be fixed by the Secretary of the Treasury. All these loans were disposed of at not less than par in the paper currency of the country, and, with the duties and taxes imposed, furnished the means for funding the floating debt and finishing the war. The ascertained debt of the country reached its highest point Aug. 1, 1865, being then, less cash in the Treasury, $2,756,431,571. Immediately upon the close of the war, with its enormous expenditures, the receipts from taxation began to give relief, but by an act of March 3, 1865, a further issue of $600,000,000 of the so-called 7.30 notes and an indefinite amount of 6-per-cent bonds was authorized, into which might be converted maturing loans and obligations. The refunding act of July 14, 1870, authorized the issue of $200,000,000 5-per-cent bonds, $300,000,000 41⁄2-per-cent bonds and $1,000,000,000 4-per-cent bonds, all payable, principal and in at the rate of 5 per cent, amounting to $195,000,ooo, and the act of February, 1879, authorized the issue of ten-dollar certificates of deposit convertible into 4-per-cent bonds. In April, the refunding operations were for the time concluded, all the 5-20 and 10-40 bonds having been refunded. On the 1st of March, 1881, a bill "to facilitate the refunding of the national debt," having passed both Houses of Congress, was sent to President Hayes, who returned it to Congress with his disapproval. The bill provided for the issue of 3-per-cent bonds, to be exchanged for maturing bonds bearing 5 and 6 per cent, and also provided that no bonds should be taken as security for bank circulation except the 3per-cents provided for in the bill. This latter provision was the chief objection of the President to the bill, as, in his judgment, the security was insufficient. Thus Congress adjourned without making any provision for refunding the large amount of bonds that became due on or before the 1st of July. These, however, were called in, from time to time, by Secretary Windom, for payment from the surplus revenue, but permission was given the holders of the bonds to have them continued, at the pleasure of the gvoernment, with interest at the rate of 32 per cent. Aggregate of interest-bearing debt, exclusive of United States bonds issued to Pacific railroads -- terest, in coin, into which to refund bonds bear- | On the 11th of April, 1876, the Secretary of the Treasury, under the authority given in the act of Jan. 14, 1875, sold $50,000,000 of 42-per-cent bonds for gold coin, also to be used for resumption purposes. The immediate effect of the resumption of specie payments which followed was to advance the public credit, making it possible to rapidly fund all the bonds of the United States then redeemable into bonds bearing 4 per cent or less interest. 48,720 100,000,000 137.567,650 $822,615,170 Nearly all the holders preferred to retain their bonds, and thus they were refunded with an annual saving in interest of over ten million dollars. By a provision of the National Bank Act of July 12, 1882, the Secretary of the Treasury was authorized to receive the 32-per-cent bonds, and to exchange therefor 3-per-cent bonds. The 32per-cent bonds then outstanding amounted to $449,324,000. These were mostly exchanged for 3-per-cents, and all were subsequently paid, from time to time, by surplus revenue. The 42-percent refunding bonds have also been paid from surplus revenue, except about $25,000,000, continued at 22 per cent, and also a considerable portion of the 4-per-cent bonds. The bonds sold by the Cleveland administration to reinforce the gold reserve were 5 and 4 per cents, of the description authorized by the refunding act of 1870. The total interest-bearing bonded indebtedness of the country, March 1, 1896, was $822,615,170, not including about $25,000,000 of 4-per-cent bonds sold, but not then delivered. See FINANCES OF THE UNITED STATES, in these JOHN SHERMAN. The act of Jan. 25, 1879, extended the process of refunding to the 10-40 bonds bearing interest | Supplements. DEBTS OF VARIOUS COUNTRIES-DECALCOMANIA Denmark.. France (including Tunis) Germany Empire proper. Hamburg Prussia Saxony... Würtemberg Great Britain and Ireland.. India Canada ... New S. Wales.. South Australia 33,004,722 40,272,715 45.76 75.00 253,074,927 47.5 49.23 191,021, 265 214.87 152.70 201,934,820 298.01 302.75 153,197,670 333.46 344.50 114,032,500 321.00 323.50 9.25 110,817,720 124,998,805 77.56 81.60 8,464,662 2,941,955 22.92 22,028,424 237,533,212 233,289,245 184,898, 305 129,204, 750 202,177,500 23,335,345 38,218,020 147.46 246.20 179,614,005 234,021,210 161.63 190.30 6,509, 736 17,086,695 150.23 190.78 107,306,518 164,721,830 49.06 75.10 10,825,836 13,901,415 7.59 13,500,000 18,310,000 14.06 18.30 2,302, 235 3,697.195 26.57 36.96 63,394,267 30,063,790 146.77 69.20 2,324,826, 329 2,529,668,035 76.06 82.70 305,727,816 202,112,245 7.83 4.91 113,606,675 83,500,000 9.98 8.27 430,589,858 457,470,065 95.56 96.70 1,711, 206 575,667 4.28 9.29 19,633,013 2,228,049 59.56 4.65 382,175,655 178,943,000 145.77 65.10 633,426,840 742,450.515 130.66 172.50 180,145,800 237,928,150 32.75 44.55 4,010,018,074 2,696,730,000 30.79 22.40 6,033,300 6,717,640 9.05 10.30 60,811,330 65,400,000 30.20 28.35 1,251,453,696 1,192,408,600 73.85 67.20 See NATIONAL DEBT, Vol. XVII, pp. 243-248. DECACHORD, a sort of guitar, with ten strings, similar to the common instrument, only larger in the body and with a broader finger-board. It was generally triangular in shape, and was much used by the ancient Greeks, and is still used in some parts of Greece to-day. DECADENCE (literally, "a falling into decay"), a term referring to those works of art produced after the school to which they belong has passed the period of its highest excellence. In the 1007 days of Pericles, art in all its branches attained its greatest perfection in Greece, and the many exquisite works produced at a later date belong, more or less conspicuously, to the decadence of Greek art. Art and literature culminated in Rome in the days of Augustus, and obvious and rapid decadence followed. The school of the Renaissance again came into perfection with Raphael; even the Caracci belong to its decadence, and the decline continued through the rococo of Louis Quinze, till throughout Europe art became almost extinct, and in England it probably reached as low a point at the beginning of the reign of George IV as it ever reached in any civilized country. DECAGON, a plane geometrical figure of ten sides. A regular decagon is one with equal sides and equal included angles. See GEOMETRY, Vol. X, p. 382. DECAISNE, JOSEPH, a French botanist; born at Brussels, Belgium, March 11, 1809; died in Paris, Feb. 10, 1882. He was a specialist in physiological botany. In 1830 he was appointed assistant in the Paris Museum of Natural History. He became director of the Botanical Garden in 1851. He was an untiring worker, and published the results of his investigations in many pamphlets and larger works; among the latter, History of the Diseases of Potatoes; A Treatise on Systematic Botany; and various works on rice, yams, etc. DECAISNEA, a genus of plants of the family Berberidacea. There is but one species, found in the Himalaya Mountains, where it grows at an elevation of 7,000 feet, and is the only one of the family which is not a climber. From the root project several straight branches, like walkingsticks, bearing pinnate leaves two feet in length, which stand out horizontally. The green flowers, growing in racemes, are unisexual, and the yellow fruit, having a length of about four inches and a diameter of one inch, resembles a short cucumber and contains large black seeds. The soft, milky pulp is sweet and wholesome, and is eaten by the inhabitants of the region. DECALCOMANIA, the process of transferring designs upon various fabrics. The design is called, in the trade, "decalcomanie." The first use to which this class of work was put was the marking of glass clock-dials, some thirty years ago. An American carriage-painter was the first to use decalcomanie for the ornamentation of vehicles. The superior merit of transfers soon became known to all the trade in any way connected with the use of paints and enamels, until now they are used altogether on carriages, agricultural implements, sewing-machines, bicycles, stoves, safes, scales, typewriters, pianos, refrigerators, iron and wooden machinery, japanned and wooden articles, advertising and window signs, and a score of other articles. The lithograph is made in reverse on prepared paper, and when it is desired to make the transfer, varnish is applied to the face of the decalcomanie and it is firmly pressed upon the article to be decorated. Upon the application of moisture, the chemical preparation joining the design and the paper upon which it is fixed softens, 1008 DECALITER-DECATUR 5 miles N. E. of Atlanta, on the Georgia and Seaboard Air Line railroads, and is the home of many people who do business in that city. It has schools, churches, a furniture factory, and some agricultural trade. Population 1890, 1,013. and the paper is withdrawn, leaving the design | central Georgia, the capital of De Kalb County; permanently transferred. It is then coated with varnish, or, in the case of transferring upon silk, with cement, which renders it water-proof and durable. Many hundreds of thousands of dollars' worth of these transfers are used annually in the United States, where they are now manufactured, but until recently Germany was the only source of supply. DE CAMP, JOHN C., an American naval officer; born in New Jersey, Oct. 5, 1812; died in Burlington, New Jersey, June 25, 1875. He entered the naval service in 1827. From that time until the beginning of the Civil War, he was consecutively with the Brazilian, West Indian and African squadrons, stationed at the New York navy-yard, and was commander of the storeship Relief. He had advanced from the rank of midshipman to that of commander. During the Civil War he was in the Mississippi squadron (1861-62) in command of the Iroquois, and in 1862-65 in the Atlantic squadron. He was afterward stationed at Pensacola and Philadelphia, and was retired in 1870 with the rank of rear-admiral. DE CANDOLLE, ALPHONSE LOUIS PIERRE PYRAMUS, a Swiss botanist, son of Augustin Pyramus De Candolle (q. v., Vol. VII, p. 18); born in Paris, Oct. 27, 1806; died April 9, 1893. In 1831 he became professor of botany in the Academy of Geneva, but resigned a few years later. He was elected president of the International Botanical Congress at London in 1866, and in the following year of the congress at Paris. He held important offices in several scientific societies. He was decorated with the cross of the Legion of Honor. He published a number of valuable treatises; among them, Introduction to the Study of Botany (1835); Rules for the Nomenclature of Botany (1867); History of Science and Scientists (1872); The Beginning of Plant Cultivation (1883); and edited his father's Elementary Theory of Botany, and continued his Introduction to Natural History.-His son, ANNE CASIMIR PYRAMUS, botanist, was born in Geneva, Feb. 26, 1836. He assisted his father in the Introduction and other works, and has written, as the result of his own investigation, Production of Cork (1860); Structure of the Leaves of Dicotyledonous Plants (1879); and Recent Inve. tigations of the Piperaceae (1882). He was made an honorary doctor of the University of Rostock. DECAPITATION. See GUILLOTINE, Vol. XI, p. 263; and CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, in these Supplements. DECAPODA. See MOLLUSCA, Vol. XVI, p. 669. DECATUR, a village of central northern Alabama, the capital of Morgan County, situated on the Tennessee River, 75 miles N. of Birmingham, on the Louisville and Nashville and Memphis and Charleston railroads. It has an academy, churches, hotels, lumber-mills and a basket factory. Population 1890, 2,765. DECATUR, a small village of northwestern DECATUR, a city of eastern central Illinois, and capital of Macon County (see DECATUR, Vol. VII, p. 18). Decatur has seven lines of railway, a system of water-works, a large woolen mill, three flouring-mills, two breweries, a planing-mill, and manufactories of iron, carriages, engines and boilers, farming implements, furniture, linseedoil, bagging, etc. It has an excellent system of public schools, a high school, a Roman Catholic academy and a convent. Population 1880, 9,547; 1890, 16,841. DECATUR, a city and the capital of Adams County, eastern Indiana, 24 miles S.S. E. of Fort Wayne, on Saint Mary's River, and on the Chicago and Erie, Grand Rapids and Indiana and Toledo, St. Louis and Kansas City railroads. It has stone-quarries and a limekiln. Its manufactories are of wind-mills, engines, spokes and hubs, mill machinery and tiling. Population 1890, 1,746. DECATUR, a village of Van Buren County, southwestern Michigan, 23 miles S. W. of Kalamazoo, on the Michigan Central railroad. It has a foundry, tannery, and manufactures lumber and flour. Population 1895, 1,336. DECATUR, a village, and the capital of Wise County, northern central Texas, situated 65 miles N. W. of Dallas, on the Fort Worth and Denver City railroad. Flour is here manufactured. Population 1890, 1,746. DECATUR, STEPHEN, an American naval officer; born in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1751, died in Frankford, near Philadelphia, Nov. 14, 1808. Previous to the Revolution he was in command of a merchant vessel, and during the war commanded successively the privateers Royal Louis and Fair American. He was one of the boldest and most successful of American privateers men. In 1798 he commanded the Delaware, captured two French ships, and in 1800 was made commander of a fleet of thirteen vessels on the Guadeloupe station. In the following year peace was proclaimed, and he returned and engaged in business in Philadelphia. DECATUR, STEPHEN, son of the preceding; born in Sinnepuxent, Maryland, Jan. 5, 1779; died near Bladensburg, Maryland, March 22, 1820. His first voyages were made on board his father's ships. He became a midshipman in 1798, and shipped under STEPHEN DECATUR. DECATURVILLE-DECIUS Commodore Barry on the frigate United States, on which he saw much service and earned a noble reputation. He served during the naval war with France, and when peace was declared and Congress reduced the navy to six ships and nine commanders, Stephen Decatur was one of the 36 lieutenants retained in the service. When trouble arose with Tripoli, and Commodore Richard Dale was hastily fitted out with a squadron and sent to bring the Tripolitans to terms, Lieutenant Decatur accompanied him as first lieutenant of the Essex. The Essex was returned to New York, and another expedition sent out under Commodore Preble, who gave Decatur the command of the Enterprise. His most conspicuous act while on this expedition was the burning of the Philadelphia, an American frigate which had been captured by the Tripolitans and fitted out by them for service. Decatur volunteered for this hazardous task. He entered the harbor of Tripoli, boarded the Philadelphia, set fire to her, and then escaped to the Intrepid through a rain of shot. "The most daring act of the age, was what Admiral Nelson said of the deed. For this exploit he was made captain. During the war of 1812 Commodore Decatur, commanding the United States, captured the British frigate Macedonian, and a gold medal was voted him by Congress for the victory. After this war Decatur and Bainbridge were sent with two squadrons to punish the Dey of Algiers, who had been capturing American merchantmen. Commodore Decatur captured the Mashouda and Estedio, Barbary warships, and made a treaty with Algiers, whereby all Christian captives were, to be released without ransom, and no more tribute was to be paid to Algiers. To Tunis and Tripoli somewhat similar terms were dictated, and all Europe rejoiced to see the power of the Barbary states broken. Commodore Decatur's last public services were rendered as naval commissioner. Commodore Barron, who, at the beginning of the War of 1812, had been deprived of his command of the Chesapeake, took exceptions to certain remarks which Commodore Decatur made about him. The latter refused to retract, but did all else in his power to restore friendliness, but Barron challenged Deca tur. A duel was fought at Bladensburg, March 22, 1820, in which both were wounded, and Decatur died that night. 1009 personal accusations, he was forced to resign in 1820, but was appointed ambassador to London and given the title of duke. He was elected grand referendary of the Chamber of Peers in 1834. After that time he was engaged to some extent in diplomatic missions, but took no active part in political affairs. DECEIT, a fraudulent misrepresentation by one person, whereby another, who has no means of detecting the fraud, is deceived and suffers injury thereby. An action may be maintained by one person against another, who is chargeable with deceit, to recover the damages he has suffered by reason of the misrepresentation. In an action for deceit it is necessary to show the fraudulent intent, the injury which has resulted from the act, and that the person deceived did not have the means of detecting the fraud. The intent will generally be presumed to be fraudulent if the representation was untrue, and known to be untrue by the party making it, especially if made in response to inquiries by the party to whom the representation was made, or for the apparent purpose of influencing his acts. Actions for deceit are of frequent occurrence in cases where fraudulent representations as to the financial responsibility of another induce the party deceived. to extend credit, whereby he sustains a loss. such cases the party guilty of the fraud must pay the loss. See FALSE PRETENSES, in these Supplements. In DECHAMPS, VICTOR AUGUSTE ISIDORE, a Belgian cardinal; born at Melle, Belgium, Dec. 6, 1810; died in Mechlin, Sept. 29, 1883. He distinguished himself as a pulpit orator, and in 1865 was consecrated bishop of Namur, and in 1867 archbishop of Mechlin. In 1879 he became a cardinal. He was a leader of the Ultramontanists. DECIDUOUS TEETH OR MILK-TEETH. See MAMMALIA, Vol. XV, p. 351. DECIDUOUS TREES, those trees which lose and renew their leaves every year. In cold and temperate countries the fall of leaves in autumn and the restoration of verdure to the woods in spring are among the most familiar phenomena of nature. For deciduous ornamental trees, see ARBORICULTURE, Vol. II, pp. 320, 321. DECIMATION, a Roman military punishment, rarely inflicted at the present day. When a conDECATURVILLE, the county seat of Decatur siderable body of troops committed some grave County, western Tennessee, 50 miles E. of Jack-military offense, which would be punished with son. It is the seat of a seminary. Its industry is handling the products of the neighborhood, corn, cotton, pork and lumber. Population 1895, nearly 500. DECAZES, ELIE, DUC DE, a French jurist and statesman; born at St. Martin-du-Laye, Sept. 28, 1780; died Oct. 24, 1860. He moved to Paris, but was banished in 1814 on account of his loyalty to the Bourbons. He returned in 1815 and was appointed prefect of police. Having the confidence of the king, he was, in 1818, appointed Minister of the Interior and the next year Prime On account of political intrigues and death if committed by an individual, the punishment was awarded to one tenth of them by lot, instead of to the whole number, in order that the army might not be too much weakened. DECIPIUM, a new element discovered by Delafontaine in 1878. Its atomic weight is about 171. It is very rare and little is known about its properties. DECIUS, CAIUS MESSIUS QUINTUS TRAJANUS, emperor of Rome from A. D. 249 to 251. He was born in Pannonia, at Bubalia, probably about A. D. He was placed at the head of an army by Emperor Philip. The troops under his command 200. |