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of the moon's surface. He early interested himself, also, in electricity, and made many important contributions in prismatic and spectrum analysis, and was the first to photograph the diffraction spectrum. He was the first president of the American Chemical Society, and became a member of many learned societies in Europe. His published writings include a treatise on The Forces that Produce the Organization of Plants (1844); textbooks on Chemistry, Natural Philosophy and Human Physiology, Statical and Dynamical (1856); Scientific Memoirs, being experimental contributions to a knowledge of radiant energy (1878); History of the Intellectual Development of Europe (1862; 2d ed. 1876, in 2 vols.), which gained for its author the commendation of Professor Tyndall in his famous Belfast address, and a place on the "Index Expurgatorius"; Thoughts on the Future Civil Policy of America (1865); History of the American Civil War (3 vols., 1867-70); and a History of the Conflict between Religion and Science. He died at Hastings-on-the-Hudson, New York, Jan. 4, 1882.

DRAPER, LYMAN COPELAND, an American antiquarian; born near Buffalo, Sept. 4, 1815. In 1838 he began to interview Western pioneers, thus collecting valuable historical information. In 1853 he went to Madison, Wisconsin, was state superintendent of instruction from 1858 to 1860, and became corresponding secretary of the Wisconsin State Historical Society, and in 1887 he was appointed honorary secretary for life. He published works on various subjects, including Madison, the Capital of Wisconsin (1857); King's Mountain and Its Heroes (1881). He died Aug. 26, 1891.

DRAPER, WILLIAM HENRY, an American physician; born at Brattleboro, Vermont, Oct. 14, 1830. He studied at Columbia College, New York City, and also in Paris and London. In 1869 he became clinical professor of diseases of the eye and ear in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, and in 1880 was appointed professor of clinical medicine. In 1886 he became president of the New York Academy of Medicine.

DRAUGHT OR DRAUGHT OF WATER, in maritime affairs, a technical name for the depth to which a ship sinks in the water when fairly afloat. The draught is marked on the stem or stern-post, or both, from the keel upward. When a ship is in good trim, the draught does not differ much at the two ends. Ships with sharp bottoms draw more water, or have a greater draught, than those of flatter construction.

DRAUGHTSMAN. A draughtsman differs from a designer, inasmuch as he lays no claim, in that capacity at all events, to the character of an originator.

DRAVE (Ger., Drau), a river of Austria. rises in the Tyrol and flows eastward, turning slightly toward the south, and joins the Danube a few miles east of Essek. The valleys through which it flows in its course through Carinthia, Styria and Croatia are distinguished for great fertility and picturesque scenery, while the pop

ulation upon its banks is numerous and industrious. In Slavonia the Drave is frequently bordered by dense forests. It is nearly four hundred miles in length, and is navigable for over half that distance.

DRAVIDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE. See INDIA, Vol. XII, pp. 777, 778; PHILOLOGY, Vol. XVIII, p. 779; and TAMILS, Vol. XXIII, pp. 42-45.

DRAWBACK, a term in commerce, employed in connection with the remitting or paying back of excise duties on certain classes of articles exported. Excise duties, as a matter of course, enhance by so much the natural price of the commodity on which they are imposed. Were these duties not remitted, the commodity so taxed would not be ordered from those foreign countries where articles of the same kind could be purchased free of such duties. To afford facility for the exportation of these articles, the state resorts to the expedient of returning to the exporter a sum equal in amount to what he or the manufacturer had paid to the excise.

DRAW-BAR OR DRAW-HEAD, in railway mechanics, a buffer to which a coupling is attached. DRAWING-BOARD, a board on which drawing-paper is strained for painting on in watercolors. The paper is wetted for the purpose of being strained, and when attached at the edges it is permitted to dry and contract. Formerly, the drawing-board was fitted into a frame, the edges of the wet paper being made fast by the pressure of the frame on the board. But the much simpler drawing-board which is now in use is made of a flat piece or pieces of wood, held together and prevented from warping by an edging of other pieces, the grain of which runs in the opposite direction. The wet paper is attached to the board with paste or thin glue, and when dry becomes perfectly firm and flat. When the work is finished, the paper is cut beyond the drawing with a knife.

DRAW-PLATE, a steel plate with a graduated series of holes, through which metals are drawn in making them into wires or bars. Also a name given to a plate of metal placed before a fire or before the lateral opening between the top of the fireplace and the throat of the chimney. Its use is to force the air to pass through the fire on its way into the chimney, instead of allowing it to pass over the fire.

DRAYTON, WILLIAM HENRY, an American statesman; born at Drayton Hall, on Ashley River, South Carolina, in September, 1742. He was educated in England, at Westminster School and Balliol College, Oxford, and, after his return to the United States, studied law, was admitted to the bar, and became an active writer on political topics. He opposed the patriotic associations in the colonies, and in 1771 received from the king the appointment of privy councilor for the province of South Carolina. As the revolutionary crisis approached, however, his sentiments changed, and he was suspended from his offices under the crown. In 1775 he became a member

of the Council of Safety, of which he was soon after made president; was president of the Provisional Congress in 1775; privy councilor and chief justice of the state; and in 1778 was elected a delegate to the Continental Congress, of which he continued to be a member till his death. He left a record of the events of the Revolution, which was published in 1821, under the title of Memoirs of the American Revolution. He died in Philadelphia, Sept. 3, 1779.

DRAYTON-IN-HALES OR MARKET DRAYTON, a town in the northeast of Shropshire, western central England. It is an old town, on the banks of the Fern, 19 miles N. N. E. of Shrewsbury and 153 miles N. W. of London. It is supposed to be the Caer-Draithon of the Romans. Here, in 1459, the Yorkists defeated the Lancastrians with great loss. The parish church was built in the reign of King Stephen. Drayton has manufactures of paper and haircloth, markets during the week and several fairs during the year. Population, 4,039, chiefly agricultural. DREDGING-MACHINE. See STEAM-SHOVELS AND DREDGES, in these Supplements. DRED SCOTT CASE.

Vol. XXIII, p. 772.

See UNITED STATES,

DREIBUND, THE, is the league or compact formed between Germany, Austria and Italy for mutual defense in case of attack. In 1579 an alliance between Germany and Austria, known as the "dual alliance," was formed, and in 1882, on the addition of Italy to the agreement, the dual alliance became the dreibund. The alliance has been maintained since, Emperor William of Germany announcing, in 1891, that it had then been resumed for a period of six years. The relation of these powers makes this dreibund an important safeguard in the maintenance of a balance of power on the continent of Europe.

DREISSENA. See MOLLUSCA, Vol. XVI, p.

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becoming a prominent speculator in Wall Street. He amassed a fortune, which at one time was estimated variously at from five to fifteen million dollars, but afterward lost heavily and ultimately was compelled to go into bankruptcy. Mr. Drew founded the Drew Ladies' Seminary at Carmel, gave large sums to Wesleyan University, Middletown, Connecticut, and in 1866 gave $250,000 toward founding the DREW THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY of Madison, New Jersey, the sum being afterward increased by him to nearly $1,000,000. This institution was founded for the purpose of training young men for the Methodist Episcopal ministry. It was opened Nov. 6, 1867, the first president being the Rev. Dr. John McClintock. The course extends to three years, and is adapted to college graduates. two scholarships for advanced students, permitting the pupil to study abroad if desired. The direction and control of the faculty, etc., are under the supervision of the General Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church.

DREW, JOHN, an American actor; born at Dublin, Ireland, Sept. 3, 1825. He removed to the United States when a youth, and made his first appearance as an actor at the Bowery Theater, New York City, in 1845, as Dr. O'Toole in The Irish Tutor. He removed to Philadelphia, and there became a favorite, and that city has been the home of the family since. He appeared for the first time in Philadelphia, Aug. 28, 1852, as Trapanti in She Would and She Would Not. In the following year he assumed the management of the Arch Street Theater, in association with William Wheatley. He afterward toured in England (1855), California (1858), and Australia (1859). His last appearance on the stage was made May 9, 1862, on his return from Australia. He died in Philadelphia, May 21 1862.

DREW, JOHN, an American actor, son of John Drew and Mrs. John (Louisa) Drew; born in Philadelphia, Nov. 13, 1853, and made his first appearance at the Arch Street Theater, March 22, 1872, as Plumper, in Cool as a Cucumber. Feb. 17, 1875, he appeared at the Fifth Avenue. Theater, New York City, as Bob Ruggles in The Big Bonanza. He subsequently appeared at the same theater with Edwin Booth in Shakespearean plays, and during the season of 1878-79 played Henry Beauclerc in Diplomacy. the new Daly Theater being opened in 1880, Drew was one of the members of the new company, remaining with it until 1892, during which period he visited Europe, taking a leading and an originating part in the plays produced. the commencement of the season of 1892 he began to star on his own account.

On

At

DREW, MRS. JOHN (LOUISA), an American actress and manager; born in London, England, Jan. 10, 1820, the daughter of an English actor named Lane. She came to America with her mother when eight years old, and soon appeared in child's parts in New York and Philadelphia. She was taken on a tour to Jamaica and the West Indies soon afterward, from which she returned

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in 1832. At the age of 14 she appeared as Julia, in The Hunchback, at the Boston Theater. For several years afterward she performed in various cities in dramas, burlesques and light comedies, extending her tour in 1847 to Chicago, St. Louis, New Orleans and Mobile. In 1848 she married George Mossop, an Irish comedian, who died a few months later. In 1849 she married John Drew, with whom she went on a starring tour in 1857, whence dated the beginning of her fame as an actress. In 1861 she assumed the management of the Arch Street Theater, in Philadelphia, where, for many years, she exercised an able control. In high comedy parts she was without a rival on the American stage. In 1888-89, when Joseph Jefferson and W. J. Florence formed a combination of stars to perform The Rivals in the principal theaters of the country, Mrs. Drew was a member of this company and shared the honors of the tours with Mr. Jefferson and Mr. Florence. DREXEL, ANTHONY JOSEPH, head of the great banking firm of Drexel, Morgan and Company, of Philadelphia, New York, and London, was born in Philadelphia in 1826. the death of his father in 1863, Anthony Joseph and his brother Francis succeeded to the management, and at once greatly extended the scope of the business, establishing branches in New York, London and Paris. In 1876 the Drexels united with the Rothschilds and others in forming a syndicate which placed on the market three hundred million dollars for the United States government in 42 per cent bonds. Two years later the same parties placed fifty million dollars more bonds. The firm also negotiated loans for and purchased large blocks of stock of various railroads, etc. Mr. Drexel was a man of magnificent benefactions. Among them are the Drexel Institute in Philadelphia, and, in connection with George W. Childs, the Childs-Drexel Home for Aged Printers, at Colorado Springs, Colorado, the latter dedicated May 12, 1892. The Drexel Institute of art, science and industry, for both sexes, was dedicated Dec. 17, 1891. The land and buildings cost $550,000, and the founder gave the institution $1,000,000 for endowments. He bequeathed $1,000,000 to trustees to pay $100,000 to the German Hospital in Philadelphia, the income of the remainder to be used for the erection of an art gallery, museum or other public building in connection with the Drexel Institute; and in case the projected gallery or museum should not require the whole income, to use the surplus for the establishment of a Drexel hospital. The estimate of Mr. Drexel's estate was between $25,000,000 and $30,000,000. He died June 30, 1893, at Carlsbad, Bohemia.

ANTHONY J. DREXEL.

DREYER, JOHN LOUIS EMIL, a Danish astronomer; born in 1852 at Copenhagen. M.A. and Ph. D. of Copenhagen University. He was astronomer at the Earl of Rosse's Observatory, Birr Castle, 1874; assistant astronomer at the Observatory of Trinity College, Dublin, 1878; director of Armagh Observatory, 1882; and was the author of Second Armagh Catalogue of 3,300 Stars for 1875, from Observations Made in the Years 1869-83 (1886); A New General Catalogue of Nebula and Clusters of Stars (1888); Tycho Brahe: A Picture of Scientific Life and Work in the Sixteenth Century (1890); and various papers. on astronomical and other scientific subjects.

DRIFT, a name given to the boulder-clay, a deposit of the Pleistocene epoch. More fully, it is called the Northern Drift, Glacial Drift or Diluvial Drift, in allusion to its origin. Driftwood is wood carried by tides and currents to a distance from its native locality. Specimens thus transported have been observed in the marine strata of the chalk, London clay and other formations. Sand-drift is sand driven and accumulated by the wind. See GEOLOGY, Vol. X, pp. 365-368. DRIFT, in mechanics, a conical hand-tool of steel for enlarging or shaping a hole in metal, by being driven through or into it.

DRIFT, in navigation, a technical name for the deviation which a ship's course receives by the action of a contrary wind or currents.

DRILL-BABOON. See MANDRILL, Vol. XV, pp. 476, 477.

DRILL PRESSES. See MACHINE TOOLS, in these Supplements.

DRILLS, tools for boring holes in metals. See MACHINE TOOLS, Vol. XV, pp. 155, 156.

DRILLS, implements for sowing grain. Machines have long been used for sowing grain. The object of the "drill" is to deposit seed in the ground in rows and then cover it. In this method of seeding, great advances have been made since colonial times. About the time of the adoption of the United States patent law the mechanical drill began to take practical form in England (for description of English drills, see AGRICULTURE, Vol. I, p. 320). The first successful grain-drill in the United States was invented in 1837 by Moses Pennock of Chester County, Pennsylvania, and patented by him in March, 1841. It was improved by his son, and in 1853 received the highest award at the International Exhibition in New York. Many forms of the grain-drill are now in use, over 5,000 patents for this machine having been issued in the United States alone. It has been developed in the United States and Great Britain to a high state of perfection.

DRINK QUESTION, THE. See LIQUOR LAWS, in these Supplements.

DRISLER, HENRY, an American scholar; born on Staten Island, New York, Dec. 27, 1818, and graduated at Columbia in 1839, in which college he was appointed tutor in Greek and Latin in 1843, adjunct professor of the same in 1845, professor of Latin in 1857, and of Greek in 1867,

on the death of Dr. Anthon. He prepared a new edition, with additions, of Liddell and Scott's adaptation of Passow's Greek Lexicon, in conjunction with Dr. Anthon (1846), and was associate editor of the seventh Oxford edition of Liddell and Scott (1883); and prepared a greatly enlarged edition of Yonge's English-Greek Lexicon (1870). DRIVER, SAMUEL ROLLES, an English educator and author; born in 1846, educated at Oxford, of which he was elected scholar in 1865, and graduated with first-class honors in 1869; fellow of New College from 1870 to 1882, and tutor from 1875 to 1882. He applied himself early to the study of Hebrew and other Semitic languages, and obtained the two University Hebrew scholarships in 1866 and 1870, respectively, and was appointed, in 1875, member of the Old Testament Revision Company. In 1882 he was appointed to the regius professorship of Hebrew at Oxford (with a canonry of Christ Church attached). He wrote A Treatise on the Use of the Tenses in Hebrew (1874); Isaiah: His Life and Times, and the Writings Which Bear His Name (1888); Notes on the Hebrew Text of the Books of Samuel (1890); and of various articles relating to the Old Testament and Hebrew philology; and was also the joint editor of The Holy Bible, With Various Renderings and Readings from the Best Authorities, published by the Queen's Printers in 1889. As a Hebraist and student of the Old Testament, he established a reputation upon the Continent and in America.

DRIVING. In the United States, furious driving in cities generally is a misdemeanor, punishable by fine and imprisonment. In the absence of state laws, municipalities regulate the rate of driving.

DROIT D'AUBAINE. See ALIEN, Vol. I, p. 575.

DRÖLLING, MICHAEL MARTIN, a French painter; born at Paris, March 7, 1786; son of Martin Drölling, under whose instruction and that of David he studied. He won the grand prix de Rome and became a member of the French Institute in 1833. Among his paintings are The Wrath of Achilles (1819) and Orpheus and Eurydice (1817). He received the decoration of the Legion of Honor in 1837 and died in Paris, Jan. 9, 1851. DROMEDARY. See CAMEL, Vol. IV, p. 737. DRONGO-SHRIKE, the birds of the family Dicrurida, found in Asia, Africa and Australia. They are glossy black in color. In India they are called king-crows, because they so successfully attack intruders, as crows or kites.

DROMORE, a town in the northwest of Down County, Ireland, on the Lagan, 17 miles S. W. of Belfast by rail. It is noted for its linen manufactures and as the burial-place of Jeremy Taylor. Population, 2,408.

DROSCHKY OR DROSHKY, a term applied to a form of carriage in use in Russia and Germany, very much like the English victoria. Formerly, as first used in Russia, it was a fourwheeled vehicle in which the passengers rode astride a bench, their feet resting on bars near the ground.. It had no top. The modern droshky

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is a public hack or cab, and the word is used freely of any public conveyance.

DROSERACEÆ. See INSECTIVOROUS PLANTS, Vol. XIII, pp. 134, 140.

DROSOMETER, an instrument for measuring the quantity of dew that collects on a surface exposed to the open air during the night. The simplest drosometer is a tussock of wool, weighed when dry, and again after the accession of dew. The general form is that of a balance, the portion for the weight protected, while the other side is left exposed so as to collect the dew.

DROUYN DE LHUYS, ÉDOUARD, a French statesman; born in Paris, Nov. 19, 1805. He was attached to the embassies at Madrid and at The Hague. In 1840 he was placed at the head of the commercial department under the Minister of Foreign Affairs, and shortly afterward was elected deputy for Melun. Under Louis Napoleon's presidency in 1848, he became Minister of Foreign Affairs, and in 1849 went to London as ambassador. He again took office as Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1852, and remained in office until 1855. For the third time he was Foreign Minister from 1862 to 1866. From 1866 to 1870 he was a member of the Privy Council, but after that year took no further part in politics. died in Paris, March 1, 1881.

DROUN, THOMAS MESSINGER, an American chemist; born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, March 19, 1842. On his graduation from the University of Pennsylvania Medical School in 1862 he went to Germany, where he studied chemistry and metallurgy. He returned to the United States, and was instructor in metallurgy at Harvard from 1869 to 1870; professor of chemistry at Lafayette College from 1874 to 1881, and became professor of chemistry in the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in 1885; contributing numerous papers to various chemical journals.

DROWNING, as a capital punishment, was long the custom. Tacitus tells us that the Germans hanged their greater criminals, but that meaner and more infamous offenders were plunged under hurdles into bogs and fens. Drowning was also a Roman punishment. The Lex Cornelia decreed that parricides should be sewed up in a sack with a dog, cock, viper and ape, and thrown into the sea. The Anglo-Saxon codes ordered women convicted of theft to be drowned. The pit, ditch or well was for drowning women; but the punishment was sometimes inflicted on men. late as 1611 a man was drowned at Edinburgh for stealing a lamb. The custom survived in Scotland until 1685, and in France as late as 1793. See also CAPITAL PUNISHMENT in these Supplements.

As

DROYSEN, JOHANN GUSTAV, a German historian; born in Treptow, Pomerania, July 6, 1808. He was professor of history at Berlin in 1833-40; at Kiel from 1840 to 1848; at Jena from 1848 to 1859; and again at Berlin from 1859 until his death. His historical writings are of great value. Among them are History of Prussia (12 vols., 1876); History of Danish Politics from Acts and

Documents (1850); and History of Alexander the | Great (1833). Died in Berlin, June 19, 1884.

DROZ, ANTOINE GUSTAVE, a French novelist; born at Paris, June 9, 1832, grandson of Jean Pierre Droz (1746-1823), the noted sculptor. At first Droz studied art, but soon turned to journalism, where he was a brilliant success, especially in Monsieur, Madame, et Bébé (1866), which ran through 120 editions. Others of his works are Babolein (1872) and Une Femme Gênante (1875).

DRUGGET, a woven and felted coarse woolen fabric, usually with a printed pattern, chiefly used for covering carpets, and hence often called crumbcloth. The name is also given to a stout dress fabric made with a linen warp and a worsted weft. This stuff is still made by hand-loom in Scotland.

DRUIDS, UNITED ANCIENT ORDER OF. See BENEFIT SOCIETIES, in these Supplements.

DRUM ARMATURE. See ELECTRICITY, § 81, in these Supplements.

DRUMFISH, a marine fish of the genus Pogonias, found along the Atlantic coast of America. The name refers to its producing a peculiar sound, which is probably caused by rushing of air in the air-bladder.

DRUMLIN, a term in geology for a low hill formed of an unstratified mass of glacial deposit. Such hills are found in Ireland, Scotland, and in the United States in Wisconsin, New York, and the New England states. The drumlins are generally rounded and smooth, but sometimes are rough, with steep sides.

DRUMMOND, HENRY, a Scottish clergyman and scientist; born in Stirling, Scotland, in 1851; graduated from the University of Edinburgh and afterward studied at Tübingen University, Germany; ordained a minister of the Free Church, and was first stationed in Malta. In 1884 he was appointed professor in science in the Glasgow Free Church College, after a service of seven

REV. HENRY DRUMMOND,

years as lecturer. He traveled a great deal, and wrote an account of his African trip, under the title, Tropical Africa (1888). But it is as a scientific theologian that he is known to the world. His Natural Law in the Spiritual World (1883) won for him a high place among thinkers and thoughtful writers. Equally well received have been his Greatest Thing in the World-Love; and two others along the same line of thought; and The Ascent of Man (1894), a work which elicited much criticism and praise.

DRUMMOND, THOMAS, an American lawyer and jurist; born in Bristol Mills, Maine, Oct. 16, 1809; graduated from Bowdoin in 1830; became Federal judge for the district of Illinois in 1860; judge of the northern district in 1865; and in 1869 judge of the United States circuit court for

the circuit which included Wisconsin, Indiana and Illinois. This last position he held until 1884, when he was retired on account of age. He died in Wheaton, Illinois, May 15, 1890.

DRUMMOND ISLAND, an island at the northern end of Lake Huron, 18 miles long and 10 wide, belonging to Chippewa County, Michigan. DRUMMOND LAKE. See DISMAL SWAMP, Vol. VII, p. 259.

DRUMMOND

LIGHT OR LIME-BALL LIGHT, a very intense light, produced by directing an ignited stream of oxy-hydrogen gas upon a ball of lime. It was invented by Thomas Drummond of the British navy, in 1826. It was first used in coast-survey work to signal from one station to another.

DRUPE. See BOTANY, Vol. IV, p. 151. DRUSUS, CLAUDIUS NERO. See TIBERIUS, Vol. XXIII, pp. 335-337.

DRYBURGH, a beautiful ruined abbey in Berwickshire, five miles E.S. E. of Melrose, on the Tweed. It contains the graves of Sir Walter Scott and of his son-in-law, Lockhart.

DRYDEN, a village of Tompkins County, central New York, 30 miles N. of Owego, on the Lehigh Valley railroad. It contains a graded school, a woolen mill, tannery, and a newspaperoffice. It has a magnetic spring, and Dryden Spring Place attracts many health-seekers. Population 1890, 663.

DRYING-MACHINE, a name applied to an apparatus for drying long webs of calico and other fabrics. See BLEACHING, Vol. III, p. 817. DRYOPHINE. See SNAKES, Vol. XXII, pp.

193-195.

DRY-PLATE PHOTOGRAPHY. See PнOATE TOGRAPHY, in these Supplements.

DRY TORTUGAS, a group of 10 small, low islands belonging to Monroe County, Florida, and situated 40 miles W. of the most western of the Florida Keys. Florida Keys. On these islands stand two lighthouses, one 150 feet high, on the southwesternmost island, with a fixed dioptric light of the first order, lat. 24° 38' 5" N., long. 82° 52' 53" W. The other is inside Fort Jefferson, lat. 24° 37′ 47′′ N., long. 82° 52' 53" W., and is of less importance and size. Fort Jefferson, on Garden Key, is an important fortification, which, during the Civil War, was used as a penal station for Confederate prisoners, and in which prisoners under sentence of court-martial are still occasionally confined.

DUALIN, an explosive compound invented by Carl Dittmar. Its composition is: nitrate of potassa, 20 per cent; sawdust, 30 per cent; nitroglycerine, 50 per cent. It is more sensitive to heat than dynamite, and can be exploded by the slightest friction even when frozen. It has twice the explosive power of dynamite. See NITROGLYCERINE, Vol. XVII, p. 521.

DUALISM, the name given to a philosophical theory, according to which two principles of different natures, original, and incapable of being derived the one from the other, lie at the bottom of everything; as, for example, the ideal and the real; the spiritual and the material; the