IIII

ECCLESTON, SAMUEL, an American Roman Catholic archbishop; born in Kent County, Maryland, June 27, 1801. He was ordained in 1825, and later studied in Paris. On his return he became first vice-president, then president, of St. Mary's College. In 1834 he became archbishop of Baltimore. He died in Georgetown, District of Columbia, April 22, 1851.

ECHEGARAY, José, a Spanish dramatist, mathematician and statesman; born in Madrid, Spain, in 1835. His studies finished, he took the position of professor of mathematics and physics in the Special School of Engineering at Madrid. He attained distinction in this line, and published several works of merit; among them, Problems of Analytical Geometry (1865) and Modern Theories of Physics (1867). He became Minister of ComHe became Minister of Commerce in 1868, of Public Instruction in 1873, and of Finances in 1874. But his principal reputation is as a dramatist. Among his dramas are The Highest Mark (1875); An Insane Devotion (1879); and Joyous Life and Sad Death (1885).

ECHENEIDIDÆ, a family of fishes characterized by a sucking disk on the upper surface of the head, by which they attach themselves to other fishes. The Remora is a well-known representative of the family. See PILOT-FISH, Vol. XIX, pp. 96, 97.

ECHIMYD (Echimys), a genus of South American rodent quadrupeds, having the tail scaly, and the fur coarse and mingled with flattened spines. They are known as spiny rats."

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ECHINIDEA. See ECHINODERMATA, Vol. VII, pp. 629-632.

ECHINOCACTUS, a genus of cactus plants, comprising more than two hundred species, most of which belong to Mexico and the United States. They are globose or oval, mostly strongly ribbed, with clusters of spines (often very stout) on the ribs, and usually very showy flowers borne near the apex. See CACTUS, Vol. IV, p. 625; and HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, p. 265. ECHINUS. See ARCHITECTURE, Vol. II, p.

464.

ECHIUM, a genus of boraginaceous plants, of which there are about fifty species, represented by the common blueweed or viper's bugloss (E. vulgare, a native of Europe), but having become a weed in the United States.

ECHIURIDÆ, a family of greatly degenerated annelid worms. The larva is normal, but the adult is modified, so that the exact affinities are uncertain. They are all marine. Some species are found on coasts of the United States. ANNELIDA, Vol. II, p. 70.

See

ECHO. See ACOUSTICS, Vol. I, p. 107. ECHO CAÑON, a remarkable ravine, in the midst of magnificent scenery, in Summit County, northwestern central Utah, 975 miles from Omaha.

ECKERT, THOMAS THOMPSON, an American telegrapher; born in St. Clairsville, Ohio, April

graph lines until the beginning of the civil war, when he took charge of the military telegraph office at the headquarters of General McClellan. In September, 1862, he established the military telegraph headquarters in the War Department building at Washington. In 1864 he was brevetted brigadier-general, and then appointed assistant Secretary of War, retaining the office until 1866, when he resigned. Afterward becoming connected with various telegraph companies, in 1881 became vice-president and general manager of the Western Union Telegraph Company, and in March, 1893, president of that institution.

ECKFORD, HENRY, a naval architect; born in Irvine, Scotland, March 12, 1775. During the War of 1812 he was employed by the United States government to construct vessels of war for the lakes and inland waters. Later he built the steamer Robert Fulton, which eventually was purchased by the Brazilians. In 1820 Mr. Eckford became United States naval constructor at the Brooklyn navy-yard. Under his direction the government built six ships of the line. In 1831 he had built a sloop-of-war for the Turkish navy, and was preparing to enter the service of that government as chief naval constructor when he died, in Constantinople, Turkey, Nov. 12, 1832.

ECKMÜHL, a village of Bavaria, 13 miles S. E. of Ratisbon. Here, in 1809, Napoleon defeated Archduke Charles. See AUSTRIA, Vol. III, p. 133. See PATHOLOGY, Vol. XVIII,

ECLAMPSIA.

p. 391.

ECLECTIC SCHOOL OF MEDICINE. See AMERICAN ECLECTIC SCHOOL OF MEDICINE, in these Supplements.

ECLIPSE. See ASTRONOMY, Vol. II, pp. 802

804.

ECLIPTIC. See ASTRONOMY, Vol. II, p. 771. ECLOGUE. See PASTORAL, Vol. XVIII, p.

345.

*ECOLOGY, sometimes written ECOLOGY, a department of plant physiology so recently organized that it can be outlined only in an imperfect way. It is that phase of physiology which deals with plants in their external relations, as distinct from physiology proper, which deals with the internal economy of the plant. The main facts of ecology are not new, but their organization into a separate department of botany is comparatively recent. The subject deals with plants as living organisms in their broadest relationships, and has been styled the "biology of plants," but the word biology has too broad an application to be so restricted. In the following outline an attempt is made to present the main subjects of ecology, rather than a well-organized syllabus.

A. MODIFICATIONS OF FORM AND FUNCTION.
1. The plant as modified by its environment.
a. By food.

(1) Holophytes: the word signifies "the whole plant," and refers to those plants whose mode of life is entirely of the ordinary kind, which includes almost all green * Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company.

plants, which construct their substance from absorbed carbon dioxide, water, soluble nitrogen salts, and other salts; that is, from wholly inorganic materials. The province of ecology is to consider the various adaptations of the plant as a whole to obtain such food-material.

(2) Parasites: the adaptations of plants to secure their food-material from other living beings, including the general effect of parasitism upon plant-structure.

(3) Saprophytes: the adaptations of those plants whose nutrition is like that of ordinary animals, in that they are entirely dependent upon organized food, material obtained from dead organisms or from the products of living ones.

(4) Carnivorous plants: the adaptations of those plants which supplement the ordinary inorganic food of green plants by various contrivances to secure and absorb animal food. In this category fall Dionaa, Drosera, Sarracenia, Nepenthes, etc., with their elaborate traps of various kinds, as well as those plants which secure the same result by the simpler device of glandular secretions.

b. By medium.

(1) Those plants suspended in the atmosphere, as bacteria and other minute forms.

(2) Those plants supported in the atmosphere, as numerous species of epiphytic Orchids, Bromelias, etc. (3) Those plants suspended in liquid, as numerous algæ, yeast, etc.

(4) Those plants surrounded by earth, as the truffles. (5) Those plants partly in one medium and partly in another, as ordinary terrestrial plants in earth and atmosphere, ordinary aquatics in earth and water, and some in earth, water and atmosphere.

(1) Megatherms: those plants adapted to a high temperature average, as palms.

(2) Mesotherms: those plants adapted to a moderate temperature average, as the orange.

(3) Microtherms: those plants adapted to a low temperature average, as oaks.

(4) Hekistotherms: those plants adapted to an arctic temperature, as the arctic lichens.

In addition to the four "heat groups'

here indicated,

there are a number of other groups not so readily defined.

2. The organs as modified by environment.

This phase of ecology has been very little studied, but represents a fertile field for investigation.

3. Dependence of the plant upon other organisms. a. Symbiosis: certain plants have entered into relations of mutual helpfulness, in many cases having become so completely adapted as to be absolutely dependent upon one another. A prominent example is the group known as "lichens," which are various groups of fungi and algæ living in intimate symbiotic relations. The resulting combination makes it possible for these organisms to live in conditions which would be impossible for either alone.

b. Mycorhiza: really a special phase of symbiosis, referring to the connection found to exist between certain fungi and the roots of plants, notably trees (especially amentaceous trees), orchids, Leguminosa, etc. The absorbent region of the roots is covered by a dense mycelial growth of the fungus, which is thought to promote the absorption of organic matter of the soil by its decomposition.

c. Root-tubercles: upon the roots of certain plants, notably the Leguminosa (clover, peas, beans, etc.), gall-like growths are found, known as tubercles. These tubercles are formed through the irritation of a parasitic fungus, which has entered the root by way of the root-hairs. The relation between the fungus and green plant, however, seems to be one of symbiosis, since it is connected with the assimi

lation, by the latter, of free nitrogen. As a rule, plants cannot assimilate free nitrogen, but plants with roottubercles can grow in a soil containing no trace of nitrogen compounds. The process is not understood, but the evident source of nitrogen is the free nitrogen of the atmosphere obtained by way of the soil, and combined in usable form by the fungus of the tubercle or some bacterial form of the soil. The association of the tubercle with this form of nitrogen assimilation has been demonstrated, but its immediate relation to the process is still a subject of inquiry.

d. Mites and ants: these insects are often utilized by plants for protective purposes, which are then called myr mecophilous ("ant-loving ") plants. Sugar secretions secure the presence of certain ants, which keep off injurious ants and other destructive insects. In Acacia sphærocephala, regular "food-bodies" for the ant police are provided at the tips of the leaflets; in other species, various forms of ant shelter and colonization are provided.

4. Specific adjustments.

a. Protection against cold.
b. Protection against animals.
c. Collecting or shedding rain.
d. Devices for climbing.
e. Distribution of seeds.

5. Natural life period.

Under this category fall those factors and structures which determine the duration of plants, as in the case of annuals, biennials and perennials.

6. Vitality of the plant and of its parts.

The power of endurance of plants, as a whole, and of their different organs in particular, varies widely, and gives rise to a large series of adaptations.

7. Germination and sprouting.

a. Resting period.

b. Maturity of seeds and spores. c. Conditions for germination.

d. Characteristics of seedlings. e. Unfolding of buds.

f. Characteristics of young shoots.

B. REPRODUCTION.

1. Distribution and adjustment of the organs.

a. Monacism: a condition in which the two sets of sexual organs are separated from each other, but occur on the same plant.

b. Diæcism: a condition in which the two sets of sexual organs occur on different plants, and individual plants thus become male and female.

c. Hermaphroditism: a term used in special connection with "flowers," and indicating that stamens and pistils occur in the same flower, although morphologically these structures are not sexual. The various adaptations of the hermaphrodite flower for reproductive purposes fall under the following grouping:

(1) Dichogamy: in which the stamens and carpels of the same flower come to maturity at different times. If the stamens mature first, it is a case of protandry; if the carpels mature first, it is protogymy.

(2) Heterogamy: in which stamens and carpels mature together, but other adaptations have appeared to prevent close-pollination; as dimorphism, in which two forms of flowers occur; and trimorphism, in which there are three

forms.

4. Pollination by birds, snails, etc. The humming-birds especially are notable agents of pollen-transfer in certain plants, known as "ornithophilous" plants, while snails and other crawling forms serve the same purpose in certain clustered flowers.

5. Protection of pollen from enemies and rain. The nectar-secretions provided for the attraction of desirable insects is equally attractive to other insects, notably ants, whose visits would prove useless, or even destructive. Devices to ward off these "unbidden guests are almost as numerous as those to secure the presence of favorable visitors. Protection is necessary, also, against grazing animals, and against the injurious effects of rain upon both pollen and nectar.

6. Effects of cross and close fertilization.

A subject elaborately worked out by Charles Darwin, and further enriched by a vast body of additional observa

c. Heredity.

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the early part of the nineteenth century by the French physician, Chassaignac. It was formerly much in use, but modern surgery has grown away from it. This instrument consists of a stem or hollow tube with a fine chain passing through it. The use to which it is applied now is the removing of pedunculated growths, such as piles or polypi. The chain or wire, in some cases, is passed around the object to be removed and tightened by means of an endless screw or lever. The object is literally torn A galvanic away from the surrounding surface. battery sometimes is attached and the wire heated to a white heat, thus cauterizing the tissues as fast as they are broken. Little bleeding follows the operation of the ecraseur, the torn vessels spontaneously contracting and closing. This instrument formerly was used, in cases of cancer, for the removal of the tongue.

ECTROPIUM, an everted condition of an eyelid, produced either by a tumefaction of the inner membrane, or by a contraction of the skin covering the eyelids, in consequence of which it does not cover the globe of the eye. It is capable of being remedied by a slight surgical operation.

ECUADOR (República del Ecuador). According to the official statistics of 1893, the area of the republic is 120,000 square miles, divided into 16

D. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

1. Means of distribution.

2. Influence of climate.

3. Influence of soil and of man.

4. Zones limited by elevation.

5. Zones limited by latitude.

6. Tension lines.

To the botanist it will be apparent that the above outline is not sufficiently inclusive, but it will serve to present the range of subjects included under the head of Ecology. JOHN M. Coulter.

ECONOMY, a socialist village of Beaver County, western Pennsylvania, on the right bank of the Ohio River, and on the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne and Chicago railroad, about 17 miles from Pittsburg. The settlement was planted in 1825 by immigrants from Germany. The inhabitants own everything in common-3,500 acres of land, upward of 100 houses, with a church, a school, a museum and manufactories of wool, cotton and silk. Population, 413. ÉCORCHÉ, an anatomical figure in which the muscles are represented, stripped of the skin, for purposes of artistic study. From a portion of the figure, the upper muscles also are removed, so as to exhibit those which lie nearer to the bone. These models are made usually of plaster, and sometimes of papier-maché.

ÉCOUTES, in military operations connected with siege-works, are listening-places. They are small galleries, excavated at regular distances, and going out beneath and beyond the glacis, toward the lines and batteries of the besiegers. Their purpose is to enable the garrison to hear and estimate the works being carried on by the sappers and miners of the enemy.

ECRASEUR, a surgical instrument invented in

1,270,000 100,000 whites, 300,000 mixed, and 870,000 Indians, besides an unknown number of uncivilized Indians. The capital, Quito, has a population of 80,000. Other chief cities are Guayaquil, with a population of 45,000; Cuenca, 25,000; Riobamba, 12,000, and Latacunga, 10,000. The religion of the republic, according to the constitution, is Roman Catholic, to the exclusion of every other. Primary education is gratuitous and obligatory. There is a university at Quito, and university bodies in Cuenca and Guayaquil. There are 35 secondary schools and 1,088 primary schools, with about 70,000 pupils. There are also a military school, commer cial schools and technical schools.

The revenue of the republic for 1893 was about $3,246,000, and the expenditures for the same period, about $3,324,coo. The public debt in 1893, was about $4,650,000. More than one half the revenue is derived from customs duties on imports at the port of Guayaquil, the amount received from this source during 1890 being about $2,106,000. Although the National Convention of 1884 determined that the standing army should consist of but 1,600 men, the official statement for 1892 places the number actually in service at 3,341. The national guard consists of

30,000 men.

The exports from Ecuador in 1893 amounted to about $10,540,000, of which the chief articles were cocoa, valued at $6,487,000; India-rubber, $195,885; hides, $104,000; coffee, $815,000; vegetable ivory, $531,000. There are no trustworthy statistics of imports. The foreign commerce is chiefly with Great Britain. Since 1890 explorations and surveys have shown that Ecuador is rich in gold along the Santiago River and in the territory of Esmeraldas. No mining has as yet been the result of these discoveries.

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The roads of the country are mostly bridle-roads, although a few cart-roads have been established in the interior. Since 1884 much activity has been manifested in railroad-building, but, owing to the difficulties encountered, only 75 miles had been built in 1890. The total length of telegraphs is about twelve hundred miles. For its location, history, topography, climate, productions, political and social condition, and earlier statistics, see ECUADOR, Vol. VII, pp. 644-649.

ECZEMA. See SKIN DISEASES, Vol. XXII, pp.

122, 123.

EDBROOK, WILLOUGHBY J., an American architect; born in Deerfield, Illinois, Sept. 3, 1843. In 1860 he became an apprentice to his father, a contractor and builder, and devoted himself to the study of architecture. The following year he went into business for himself, and soon became prominent as an architect. He was city commissioner of buildings of Chicago, Illinois, and on April 13, 1891, became supervising architect of the United States Treasury. Among the buildings designed by him are the Tabor Grand Opera House, in Denver, Colorado, and Notre Dame University, at South Bend, Indiana. He died in Chicago, March 25, 1896.

EDDY, CLARENCE, an American organist and composer; born in Greenfield, Massachusetts, June 23, 1851. He studied under Dudley Buck at Hartford, Connecticut, and in Germany under August Haupt and others. He attracted the attention of the masters in Europe, and upon his return to the United States in 1875 was elected organist of the First Congregational Church in Chicago. In 1879 he became organist for the First Presbyterian Church in that city. In addition, he has been, since 1877, director of the Hershey School of Musical Art of Chicago. He gave concerts at the Centennial Exposition of 1876 and the Paris International Exhibition of 1889. He is the author of a number of preludes and other classic forms. He has published a collection, The Church and Concert Organist (1882), and a translation of Haupt's Theory of Counterpoint and Fugue (1876). In 1896 he was accorded the unusual distinction of honorary membership in the St. Cecilia Academy in Rome.

EDDY, HENRY TURNER, an American mathematician; born in Stoughton, Massachusetts, June 9, 1844. After his graduation at Yale in 1867, he pursued scientific studies in the Sheffield Scientific School, and in 1868 became instructor of mathematics in the University of East Tennessee. He was assistant professor of mathematics at Cornell in 1869, associate professor of mathematics at Princeton, and in 1874 professor of mathematics at the University of Cincinnati. He was elected president of Rose Polytechnic Institute at Terre Haute, Indiana, in 1891. He has published Analytical Geometry (1874); Thermodynamics (1879); Researches in Graphic Statics (1878); and numerous contributions to periodicals. EDDY, THOMAS, an American philanthropist; born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Sept. 5, 1758. In 1779 he settled in New York and became a merchant, but failed in 1784. In 1790 he entered the insurance business, and soon made a large fortune. He was active in the establishment of a penitentiary

system, and was director of the first building for four years. He became a governor of the New York Hospital in 1793, and in 1815 was one of the founders of the Bloomingdale Insane Asylum. He labored for the construction of the Erie canal, and was one of the originators of the New York Savings Bank, and also of the New York Bible Society. He wrote a work on the State Prison of New York. He died in New York City, Sept. 16, 1827. EDDYSTONE LIGHTHOUSE. See LIGHTHOUSE, Vol. XIV, pp. 615, 616.

EDELWEISS, the popular name of Leontopodium alpinum, a species of Composite resembling the American Gnaphaliums, or "everlastings." It is a white, woolly herb, a native of the Alps, and culti vated in gardens. It has become a very popular plant with tourists among the Alps.

EDEN, two rivers. See CARLISLE, Vol. V, p. 108; and CUMBERLAND, Vol. VI, pp. 697, 698.

EDENTON, a town and one of the capitals of Chowan County, eastern North Carolina, on the Norfolk and Western railroad, and a port of entry on Edenton Bay, which opens into Albemarle Sound. It has important shad and herring fisheries. Population, 2,205.

EDGAR, a city of Clay County, southwestern Nebraska, 74 miles W.S.W, of Lincoln, on the Burlington and Missouri River and St. Joseph and Grand Island railroads. It has railroad repair-shops, a large canning establishment, pickling factory, a creamery, broom factory, spring-mattress factory, and also a large trade in the farm produce and stock of the surrounding country. Population 1890, 1,105. EDGAR, KING. See ENGLAND, Vol. VIII, p.

286.

EDGAR THE ATHELING. See SCOTLAND, Vol. XXI, p. 481.

EDGAR THOMAS FURNACE. See IRON AND STEEL, in these Supplements.

EDGARTOWN, a port of entry and county seat of Dukes County, Massachusetts. It is on Martha's Vineyard, and has a small, safe harbor. It is engaged in the whale-fishery and the coast trade. It is becoming very popular as a summer resort. Population 1895, 1,125.

EDGECUMBE. 1. A bay in the coast of Australia, lying within the province of Queensland, near lat. 20° S. and long. 148° E. It is sheltered on every side but the north, its eastern barrier terminating in Cape Gloucester. 2. A mountain in Alaska, marking the northwest point at the mouth of Norfolk Sound, which connects the metropolitan settlement of New Archangel, on the island of Sitka, with the open ocean. It rises from the water's edge an almost perfect cone, which, during nearly the whole year, is capped with snow.

EDGEFIELD, a town of Edgefield County, central western South Carolina, 25 miles N. of Augusta, Georgia, on the South Carolina railroad. It is in a cotton district. It has manufactories of cottonseedoil and fertilizers, and a tannery and brickyards. Population 1890, 1,168.

EDGEHILL, an elevation near the village of Keinton, Warwickshire, England, where the first great battle of the Civil War was fought, on Sunday,