EDGERTON-EDMONDS Oct. 23, 1642, between the Royalist forces under | Charles and the Parliamentarians under the Earl of Essex. The Roundheads were victorious, and after the battle 4,000 men lay slain at the foot of Edgehill, most of whom were Royalists. EDGERTON, a city of Rock County, southeastern Wisconsin, on the Rock River, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad, 25 miles S. E. of Madison. From this point is shipped nearly half the tobacco raised in the state. Population 1895, 1,972. EDGEWATER, a village of Richmond County, southern New York, five miles N. E. of Richmond. It is chiefly a residence town for New York business men. Population 1890, 14,265. EDHEM PASHA, a Turkish statesman; born in 1823. He was a native of Greece, but was sold into slavery when a boy. He was educated by his master in the School of Mines at Paris. Upon his return to Turkey in 1839, he was appointed a captain in the army. He was aide-de-camp to the Sultan in 1849, and made a general of division. appointed Minister of Foreign Affairs in 1867; President of the Council of State; and, in the diplomatic service, ambassador to Berlin and other courts. He was Grand Vizier in 1877, and has been ambassador to Paris since 1885. He was EDICT OF NANTES. See FRANCE, Vol. IX, P. 579. EDIRA, the capital of Knox County, northeastern Missouri, on the Fabius River, and on the Quincy, Omaha and Kansas City railroad, 45 miles W.N.W. of Quincy. It has a Catholic academy, and also a broom factory, a carriage factory, and a creamery. Population 1890, 1,456. EDINBURG, a village of Erie County, northwestern Pennsylvania, on the French Creek and on the New York, Lake Erie and Western railroad. It has a state normal school. Population 1890, 1,107. EDINBURGH, a village of Johnson County, southeastern central Indiana, on Blue River, and on the Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis railroad. It has good water-power, hominy-mills and a starch factory. Population 1890, 2,031. EDINBURGH, a small village of Grundy County, central northern Missouri. It contains Grand River College. EDINBURGH, ALFRED ALEXANDER WILLIAM ERNEST ALBERT, DUKE OF, and Prince of SaxeCoburg and Gotha, second son of Victoria, Queen of England; born at Windsor Castle, Aug. 6, 1844. He entered the royal navy in 1858 as a cadet, and was in service afloat in the Mediterranean, West Indies and America. December, 1862, he was offered the throne of Greece, but declined. In 1866 he was created first Duke of Edinburgh, Earl of Kent and Earl of Ulster. He was appointed to the command of a frigate in 1867, and proceeded to Australia, where, at Clontarf, New South Wales, he was wounded by an Irishman, O'Farrell, who was subsequently tried and executed. He continued his voyage, visiting China and Japan. In 1882 he was promoted to the rank of vice-admiral, and given command of the Mediterranean squadron. Aug. 22, 1893, by the death of his uncle, the Prince of 1115 Saxe-Coburg and Gotha and Duke of Saxony, he succeeded to the duchy and took the oath of loyalty to the German Empire. He was given the rank of general of infantry in the German army. He married, in 1874, Marie Alexandrova, only daughter of Alexander II of Russia. See GREECE, Vol. XI, p. 126, for the circumstances of his election to the throne of that kingdom and the reasons for his declination. EDINBURGH REVIEW. See PERIODICALS, Vol. XVIII, p. 536. EDINBURGH, UNIVERSITY OF. See EDINBURGH, Vol. VII, pp. 664, 665; and UNIVERSITIES, Vol. XXIII, pp. 846, 854, 855. EDISON, THOMAS ALVA, an American inventor; born in Milan, Ohio, Feb. 11, 1847. His education was limited though it was supplemented by instruction from his mother and by his own reading. He became particularly interested in the study of chemistry. At the age of 12 he became a newsboy on the Grand Trunk railroad, and later printed the Grand Trunk Herald in the baggage-car of the train on which he sold his wares, disposing of it with his other papers. Becoming interested in telegraphy, he studied it late at nights in a railway station, and soon became an expert operator. He was employed as an operator in several Canadian offices, and at Adrian, Michigan. At this last place he fitted a small shop for repairing telegraph instruments and the making of new machinery. He then went to Indianapolis, where he invented his automatic repeater. After brief stops at other places, he went to Cincinnati with the acquired reputation of a successful inventor. From there he was called to Boston, where he perfected his duplex telegraph. Not long afterward Edison was made superintendent of the New York Gold Indicator Company, and transferred his shops to Newark, New Jersey. In 1876 he resigned this last engagement, in order to devote his entire time to research and invention, and located himself permanently at Menlo Park, New Jersey. Mr. Edison's inventions are many, and some of extraordinary value; among them are the phonograph, improvement in the electric light and the telephone, the microphone, the electric pen, the quadruplex and sextuplex transmitter, and the kinetoscope. EDISTO, a river and island of South Carolina. The river flows through the southwest part of the state, being formed near Branchville in Barnwell County, by the confluence of the North Edisto and the South Edisto, and entering the Atlantic by two arms, respectively named from the two confluents. Edisto also designates the island which separates those two arms. The stream is navigable for over one hundred miles, and its mouth is about twenty miles to the southwest of Charleston. EDMONDS, FRANCIS W., an American artist; born in Hudson, New York, Nov. 22, 1806. He 1116 EDMONDS-EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES was a bank cashier in Hudson and New York until 1855, studying in the mean time at the National Academy of Design. He was elected an associate in 1838, then a trustee, and in 1840 he became an academician. He studied in Europe, and later was instrumental in the establishment of the New York Gallery of Fine Arts. Among his productions are Barnyard; Sewing-Girl; The City and Country Beaux; The Penny Paper; Vesuvius and Florence; and The Sleepy Student. Feb. 7, 1863. He died in Bronxville, New York, EDMONDS, JOHN WORTH, an American jurist; born in Hudson, New York, March 13, 1799. He began the practice of law in Hudson, New York, in 1820, and later became state recorder. In 1831 he was a member of the state assembly, and in 1832-36 of the state senate. In 1836-38 he was on a special mission among the Indians for the government, and on his return resumed the practice of law. In 1843 he became one of the state prison inspectors, and subsequently was instrumental in many important reforms in prison discipline. He was made a circuit court judge in 1845, a judge of the state supreme court in 1847, and judge of the court of appeals in 1852. He was converted to the doctrines of spiritualism in 1851, and later published books on this subject as well as on law. He died in New York City, April 5, 1874. EDMONSTONE ISLAND, an outpost, as it were, of the delta of the Ganges, toward the Bay of Bengal, situated at the mouth of the Hoogly, the most westerly arm of the great river above mentioned, in lat. 21° 32' N., and long. 88° 20' E. EDMONTON, a town of Alberta, western Canada, on the Saskatchewan River, a terminus of the Canadian Pacific railroad, about lat. 53° 30' E., long. 113° 25' W. It is of interest because daily reports are sent hence to the Weather Bureau at Washington, and severe winter storms often make their first appearance here. Population 1891, 3,875. EDMONTON, a large village in the northeast of Middlesex, southeast England, near the Ken, seven miles N.N.E. of London. Population of parish 1871, 13,859. It contains many villas of London merchants, etc. Charles Lamb is buried in the churchyard here. Edmonton is connected with Cowper's humorous poem of John Gilpin. EDMORE, a railroad junction and shippingpoint in Montcalm County, east-central southern Michigan, 33 miles N. of Ionia. Population 1896, nearly 1,000. EDMUNDS, GEORGE FRANKLIN, an American statesman; born in Richmond, Vermont, Feb. 1, 1828. He received a public school education and the instruction of a private tutor; studied and practiced law; was a member of the Vermont legislature in 1854, 1855, 1857, 1858 and 1859, serving GEORGE F. EDMUNDS. three years as speaker; a member of the state senate, and its presiding officer pro tem. in 1861-62, was active in the Andrew Johnson impeachment, favored the reconstruction laws, and appointed to the United States Senate as a Republican to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Solomon Foot, and took his seat April 5, 1866; elected by the legislature for the remainder of the term ending March 4, 1869, and was re-elected successively four times. He was a member of the Electoral Commission of 1877. He was president pro tem. of the Senate after Arthur was elevated to the Presidency, and was the author of the act for the suppression of polygamy in Utah, known by his name. He retired from the Senate in November, 1891, owing to impaired health. EDOM, Country. See IDUMEA, Vol. XII, p. 699. EDRED OR EADRED, KING. See ENGLAND, Vol. VIII, pp. 284, 286. EDRIOPHTHALMIA. VI, pp. 661 et seq. See CRUSTACEA, Vol. *EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES, HIGHER. The subject may be treated under three heads,-I. The period of college-planting, 16361776; II. The period of expansion, 1776-1865; III. The period of university development, 1865-96. In part, this division is artificial. The multiplication of colleges has continued until the present time, while the beginnings of university development must be sought before 1865. Still, as college expansion is not the characteristic feature of the third period, or university development of the second one, the division answers to the general facts of the case, and will serve a useful purpose. I. THE PERIOD OF COLLEGE-PLANTING, 1636-1776. The history of higher education in the United States begins with the following order or enactment, made by the general court of Massachusetts, Sept. 8, 1636: "The court agreed to give £400 toward a school or college, whereof £200 should be paid next year, and £200 when the work is finished, and the next court to appoint where, and what building." At subsequent meetings of the court it was ordered that the school should be located at Newtown, the name of which was afterward changed to Cambridge, and that it should be called Harvard College. The name of the town was changed, as President Quincy has explained, as "a grateful tribute to the Transatlantic literary parent of many of the first emigrants, and indicative of the high destiny to which they intended the institution should aspire." It was called Harvard because the Rev. John Harvard, a dissenting clergyman of England, resident of Charlestown, who died in 1638, bequeathed one half of his whole property, and his entire library, to the college. The act creating a board of overseers was passed in 1642, but teaching began in 1638. This was an humble beginning, but it was made within ten years of the "great emigration" to the shores of Massachusetts Bay. An attempt was made to concentrate upon the college the support of all the New England colonies, thus making it not merely a Massachusetts, but a New England institution; but the plan did not, in the end, succeed. Eight other colleges were founded, in seven differ *Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company. EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES ent colonies, before the Revolutionary War: William and Mary, Virginia, 1693; Yale, Connecticut, 1701; Nassau Hall, now Princeton, New Jersey, 1746; Kings, now Columbia, New York, 1754; Philadelphia, now the University of Pennsylvania, 1755; Rhode Island, now Brown University, 1764; Queens, now Rutgers, New Jersey, 1770; Dartmouth, New Hampshire, 1769. Some of these colleges grew out of older schools, and some had their rise at places other than those with which they have now long been identified. "Some future poet, or mythologist," President Gilman observes, "may personify these as the nine colonial muses. These colleges all had a common character. This was not so much because the eight later ones copied Harvard, as because they all copied a common original. The founders were Englishmen by birth or descent, and had little knowledge of institutions of higher learning except those of England. The founders of Harvard, many of whom were bred at Oxford and Cambridge, called their institution a college and a university indifferently, which shows that their minds had been deeply impressed by both sides of those great seats of learning. Wisely, however, they modeled it after the English college, and not after the English university. Moreover, all other American colleges and universities for 200 years conformned in general to the same model. 1117 their proficiency and experience in practical and spiritual truths, accompanied by theoretical observations on the language or logic of the sacred writers. They were careful to attend to God's ordinances and be examined on their profiting, commonplacing sermons and reporting them publicly in the hall. "Such," says President Quincy, "were the principles of education established in the college under the authority of Dunster. Nor does it appear that they were materially changed during the whole of the seventeenth century." All things were done according to the academical custom in England. The government was rectorial, the instruction tutorial. The scholars were not permitted to use the vernacular language within the college limits on any pretext. The freshmen were servitors, or fags, to the whole college, out of study hours, to go on errands. Still, we must not lay too much stress on the ecclesiastical side of the early American colleges. In those days church and state were but different sides of the same society, and the conception of secular or neutral education had not yet dawned upon men's minds; certainly not in the American Colonies or in England. This explains why governments, as that of Massachusetts, contributed freely from the public treasury to establish and support what we can hardly regard otherwise than as denominational institutions. Furthermore, these colleges looked to furnishing able servants for the state, as well as learned and godly ministers for the shown by the ability of the public men whom they trained, particularly at the time of the Revolution, and by the strength of the American pulpit. We have an official account of the course of study at Harvard in 1726, as follows: "1. While the students are freshmen they commonly recite the grammars, and with them a recitation in Tully, Virgil and the Greek Testament, on Mondays, Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays, in the morning and forenoon; on Friday morning, Dugard's or Farnaby's Rhetoric, and on Saturday latter end of the year, they dispute on Ramus's Definitions, Mondays and Tuesdays, in the forenoon. With a single exception, these colleges were virtually church schools. The Congregationalists controlled Harvard, Yale and Dartmouth; the Episcopa-church, and how well they performed both offices is lians, William and Mary and Kings; the Presbyterians, Princeton; the Dutch Reformed, Queens; the Baptists, Rhode Island. Philadelphia alone was nonsectarian, but even that partook largely of the ecclesiastical character of the times. Christo et Ecclesia might have been the motto of any one of them, as well as of Harvard, with the possible exception of Philadelphia. Church influence is seen in the make-up of the faculties, in the destination of the students, in the studies and discipline, and in the spirit of the schools. The presidents, and probably a majority of the professors and tutors, were clergy-morning the Greek Catechism; and, towards the men; while one half of the 531 graduates sent out by Harvard previous to the year 1707 became clergymen. In her first period, so much Latin as was sufficient to understand Tully, or any like classical author, and to make and speak true Latin in prose and verse, and so much Greek as was included in declining perfectly the paradigms of the Greek nouns and verbs, were required for admission to Harvard. The first year the studies were logic, physics, etymology, syntax, and practice on the principles of grammar; the second year, ethics, politics, prosody, and dialect practice of poesy and Chaldee; the third year, arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, exercises in style, composition, epitome, both in prose and verse, Hebrew and Syriac. Besides these studies, all the students were practiced throughout the course in the Bible and the catechetical divinity. History was taught in the winter and botany in the summer; rhetoric was taught by lectures every year, and declamations were required of the students once a month. Still more, the students were practiced twice a day in reading the Scriptures and giving an account of "2. The sophomores recite Burgersdicius's Logic, and a manuscript called New Logic, in the mornings and forenoons, and, towards the latter end of the year, Heereboord's Meletemate, and dispute, Mondays and Tuesdays, in the forenoon, continuing, also, to recite the classic authors, with logic and natural philosophy; on Saturday morning they recite Wollebius's divinity. "3. The junior sophisters recite Heereboord's Meletemata, Mr. Morton's Physics, More's Ethics, Geography, Metaphysics, in the morning and forenoons; Wollebius on Saturday morning, and dispute, Mondays and Tuesdays, in the forenoons. "4. The senior sophisters, besides arithmetic, recite Allsted's Geometry, Gassendus's Astronomy, in the morning; go over the arts towards the latter end of the year, Ames's Medulla on Saturdays, and dispute once a week." * *Wadsworth's Diary, p. 27, in History of Harvard University, by Josiah Quincy, vol. 1, p. 441. 1118 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES "This extraordinary training in the ancient languages," says Professor Tyler, "led to forms of proficiency that have no parallel now in American colleges." He relates, further, that in 1649 some of the students at Harvard could with ease dextrously translate Hebrew and Chaldee into Greek. There was at the same institution, in 1678, an Indian student who wrote Latin and Greek poetry, and those arts continued a common accomplishment down to the Revolution, while the facile use of Latin for both conversation and oratory by Harvard and Yale scholars excited no remark. In the early history of several colleges much is heard of Christianizing the Indians. Dartmouth grew directly out of an attempt to accomplish that end; studies were prescribed for Indian students, that, in later opinion, reflected severely upon the good sense of those who prescribed them; but the results of the efforts, wherever made, were miserably disappointing. Still, the name of one Indian stands among the Harvard alumni. So much space has been given to Harvard College because, in dealing with that institution, we are dealing with the highest type of American education. At some other colleges, the theological features and influence may have been less prominent, and even at Cambridge they yielded somewhat, as time wore on. It must be remembered that, in England contemporary liberal education was quite as theological as in America. Besides natural philosophy, no great stress was attached to modern studies. The demand for surveyors, particularly in Virginia, tended to emphasize mathematics. French was taught for a few months at Cambridge in 1735, and again for a brief period at the close of the Revolution, when the alliance with France tended to bring French arts and science, as well as Frenchmen, into the country. French is also found at William and Mary at the same time. Franklin made a gallant struggle for an English school in the institution at Philadelphia, but he was in advance of his time, and so failed, much to his mortification. German studies thrived at Philadelphia for a time, and then declined. No permanent provision for teaching modern languages and literatures was made at Cambridge until George Ticknor entered on the duties of the Smith chair in 1819, and no instruction was given there in German until the day of Charles Follen, the German exile, who taught his first class in 1825. | son admitted the inferiority of American education in medicine, but insisted that law could be studied as well in Virginia as in England. A recent historian of the Thirteen Colonies, H. C. Lodge, says, Harvard College, "at the period of the Revolution, probably afforded, in theology, philosophy and the classics, as good an education as could be obtained in Europe, for the professors were men of character and learning, and some of them eminent." Previous to the Revolution it was very common for wealthy families in the Colonies to send their children, both sons and daughters, to Europe to be educated. This was especially the case in Maryland, Virginia and South Carolina. It is also to be observed, as marking the connection between the mothercountry and the Colonies in that period, that considerable sums, and sometimes large sums, of money were obtained in England for American colleges, just as has since been done in the old states of the East for the new ones of the West. II. THE PERIOD OF EXPANSION, 1776-1865. The Revolution stimulated the planting of colleges much more than it stimulated the extension of public schools. From the close of the war to the close of the century, new colleges were founded more rapidly than one a year; namely, St. Johns, Washington, and Frederick in Maryland; Dickinson, in Pennsylvania; Union, in New York; Hampden-Sydney and Lexington, now Washington and Lee, in Virginia; Georgetown, in the District of Columbia; the University of North Carolina and the University of Vermont; Bowdoin College, in Maine; Williams, in Massachusetts, and Middlebury, in Vermont. Nor was this all: higher education was at once carried beyond the Appalachian ranges and planted in the great valley of the West. When Tennessee was still a part of North Carolina, the legislature of that state passed an act incorporating the president and trustees of Davidson Academy, which, in time, became the University of Nashville. At one time this institution exerted a widespread influence in the Southwest; then it declined, and is now reviving again. Transylvania University, Lexington, Kentucky, chartered in 1798, was the first institution of higher learning in the West to open its doors to students. After a period of prosperity it, too, declined, and years ago ceased to exist. The foregoing is an outline view of higher educa- It will be seen that state universities have already tion in the Colonies previous to the Revolution. appeared among the colleges. It is a probable conWhat was done should not be estimated too lightly.jecture that they were prompted, in part at least, by Mr. Jefferson demanded of his correspondent, Mr. Bannister, in 1785, on his return from France, "Why send an American youth to Europe for education?" And then, after enumerating the objects of a useful American education, declared, "It is true that the habit of speaking the modern languages cannot be so well acquired in America; but every other article can be as well acquired at William and Mary College as at any place in Europe." Mr. Jefferson, it is to be observed, had made a particular study of contemporary education, not only on the Continent, but in England and Scotland. The remark just quoted was no doubt intended to apply mainly or only to undergraduate study. Mr. Jeffer the Congressional land grants for universities in Ohio, which, it was understood, would be repeated in the case of other public land states. In all, there were about thirty college foundations in the country in 1801, as compared with nine in 1776. Moreover, from that day to this the number has continued steadily to increase. The statistics, unfortunately, are in a confused state, partly owing to inattention to collecting them, partly to carelessness, and partly to the difficulties of the subject itself. The CensusOffice first collected educational statistics in 1840. The following table sums up the results then obtained, by states, so far as colleges and universities are con cerned: EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES STATISTICS OF COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1840. No. of 152 23 622 311 1,419 989 813 769 1119 life, and the augmentation of this impulse by the growth and prosperity of the country. In general, the old type of study, instruction and discipline remained unchanged throughout this period. Greek, Latin and mathematics continued to be the principal studies. Studies were organized in prescribed courses, and the degree of A.B. was given to all graduates. A majority of the old institutions. 224 continued to hold their former leadership, but two or three fell behind new institutions. The differences in what passed for higher education were quite as marked as the differences of culture in the several 322 regions or districts in which they were found. In this respect the statistics of 1840, showing the relative numbers of college students in different states, are very significant. One of the most important facts was the founding of the state universities, most of which grew out of the Congressional land grants. (See SCHOOLS, PUBLIC, IN THE UNITED 495 STATES, in these Supplements.) The establishment 433 of these institutions involved ultimately, if not at 1,285 once, the assumption, by the states, of a definite position in the field of higher education, which carried with it state supervision and support, and so a dis2,034 tinct secular influence. Upon the whole, church 324 influence considerably declined; still, the higher institutions, including the state universities, remained mainly in the hands of clergymen. When Josiah Quincy, a layman, was made president of Harvard in 1829, it was thought a clear invasion of clerical privilege. 266 158 454 443 158 1,717 168 492 1,097 233 16,233 In 1850 the Census-Office reported 234 colleges and universities; in 1860 it reported 467; and in 1870, as many as 579. Since 1870 no college statistics are found in the census reports. More discriminating inquiry has been made by the Commissioner of Education, who reported 337 colleges in 1869-70, and 451 in 1892-93. These numbers, however, do not include many so-called colleges contained in other tables. It is next to an impossibility to ascertain how many degree-conferring institutions there are in the country, and quite impossible to ascertain how many institutions there are bearing the name of "college" or "university." It is clear that a college-planting movement set in at the close of the Revolution, which has been sustained until the present time, and that this movement was marked by a distinct lowering of the old college ideal. For many years the former distinction between a college and a university was practically forgotten, and to a large extent it is overlooked to-day. The principal causes that have led to the constant multiplication of colleges appear to be these: 1. The territorial growth of the country; 2. The increase and wider dispersion of population; 3. The Congressional land grants to the states for universities and colleges of agriculture and mechanic arts; 4. Religious zeal and sectarian rivalry; 5. Local interests, sometimes embracing commercial interest; 6. The ambition of individuals to give their names as founders to institutions of learning; 7. Desire to commemorate the names of relatives; 8. The lowering of the college ideal. Attention should also be drawn to the impulse which the formation of the republic gave to the national | | How far the multiplication of colleges has been an evil is a question of judgment. It is common to hear scholars, especially those at the great seats of learning, lament this multiplication, with the consequent dispersion of funds, teaching-power and students. "How much better," they say, "it would have been if the funds, professors and students had been brought together at a few great institutions, as in Germany, France and England." These forget that, to a great extent, such a concentration never could have been effected, and that the policy of dispersion has tended very considerably to augment all the factors. No doubt there has been much waste; no doubt, owing to the increase of wealth, the elevation of the standard of living, and especially the greatly improved means of transportation, the time has come for more concentration, such, in fact, as we are now seeing: but there is a great deal of truth contained in the notable words of Mr. Bryce: "The European observer conceives that his American friends may not duly realize the services which these small colleges perform in the rural districts of the country. They get hold of a multitude of poor men who might never resort to a distant place of education. They set learning in a visible form, plain, indeed, and humble, but dignified even in her humility, before the eyes of a rustic people, in whom the love for knowledge, naturally strong, might never break from the bud into the flower but for the care of some zealous gardener. They give the chance of rising in some intellectual walk of life to many a strong and earnest nature, who might otherwise have remained an artisan or storekeeper, and perhaps failed in those avocations. They light up, in many a country town, what is at first only a farthing rushlight, but which, when the town swells to a city, or when endowments flow in, or when some able teacher is placed in charge, becomes a lamp of glowing flame, which may finally throw its rays |