II20 EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES over the whole state in which it stands. In some of these Western colleges one finds to-day men of great ability and a common government." The plan involved the abolition of a prescribed curriculum and of the class great attainments; one finds students who are receiving system, and the recognition of specialization and an education quite as thorough, though not always as and that restrictions on the powers of granting degrees an III. THE PERIOD OF UNIVERSITY DEVELOPMENT, 1865-96. Reforms in higher education in the United States were pioneered by three distinguished men: Thomas Jefferson, George Ticknor and Francis Wayland. Thomas Jefferson, who early interested himself in the subject of education, caused some reforms to be made in William and Mary College about the close of the Revolution. When in Europe, as minister of the United States to France, he studied the subject in its general bearings, and returned home filled with new ideas and new enthusiasm. After his retirement from the Presidency, he matured a plan of state education for Virginia, that, in 1817, he thus outlined in a letter to George Ticknor: "I am now entirely absorbed in endeavors to effect the establishment of a general system of education in my native state on the triple basis,—1. Of elementary schools which shall give to the children of every citizen, gratis, competent instruction in reading, writing, common arithmetic and general geography; 2. Collegiate institutions for ancient and modern languages, for higher instruction in arithmetic, geography and history, placing, for these purposes, a college within a day's ride of every inhabitant of the state, and adding a provision for the full education, at the public expense, of select subjects from among the children of the poor, who shall have exhibited at the elementary schools the most prominent indications of aptness, of judgment and correct disposition; 3. A university in which all the branches of science deemed useful at this day shall be taught in their highest degree. This would probably require 11 or 12 professors, for most of whom we shall be obliged to apply to Europe, and most likely to Edinburgh, because of the greater advantage the students will receive from communications made in their native language.' While this grand programme failed, Jefferson still lived to become the founder of the University of Virginia, which opened its doors to students in 1825. The fundamental idea of this institution was the organization of separate schools, each with its own instructors, in which a degree was conferred, calling the recipient a "graduate" of this school, and without reference to other schools, and sometimes, but not always, carrying with it a title, as doctor of medicine, bachelor of law, etc. Accordingly, the University has been described as "a collection of schools, each devoted to a special subject, but under election of studies, as far as the resources of the University permitted. At the South, the University of Virginia has exerted a powerful influence; but at the North its influence has been little felt. Originally there were seven schools in the University; the number has now greatly increased. In 1819 George Ticknor entered upon the duties of the chairs of the French and Spanish languages and belles-lettres at Harvard College. He had spent the preceding four years in European study and travel, and returned home thoroughly familiar with the German universities. He soon began to agitate reforms at Harvard, and, mainly owing to his influence, some changes were resolved upon in 1825. Ticknor contended that the colleges of the United States had long been considered merely places for obtaining a degree of bachelor of arts; that recitations were mere examinations, while study and teaching were extremely superficial; that the class system prevented those who wished to investigate from doing so, since the class must be kept together and be hurried from teacher to teacher and from subject to subject. He wrote: "We have now learnt that as many years are passed in our schools and colleges and professional preparation as are passed in the same way and for the same purpose in the best schools in Europe, while it is perfectly apparent that nothing like the same results are obtained; so that we have only to choose whether the reproach shall rest on the talents of our young men, or on the instruction and discipline of our institutions for teaching them." For himself, he did not hesitate to place it on the schools, by no means omitting the colleges. The changes ordained in 1825 are thus described: "The division of the whole institution into departments, with the right of a limited choice of studies; the separation of the members of the class for their exercises according to their proficiency, so that each division might be carried forward as rapidly as was consistent with thoroughness, every man having a right to make progress according to his industry and capacity; and the opening of the college to those who wished to pursue special studies without taking a degree." But the professors, only one of whom besides Mr. Ticknor, Edward Everett, had studied in Europe, were committed to the old hardand-fast college scheme, and so in a few years the reform, save alone as it affected Mr. Ticknor's work, was for the time abandoned. When Ticknor resigned his professorship in 1835, he assigned as one reason, that he had abandoned all hope of further change in the college. The present president of Harvard University has called Ticknor a “reformer fifty years in advance of his time." The radical changes which have been effected at Harvard within the last quarter of a century justify his forecast. The third reformer is President Wayland of Brown University, who published his Thoughts on the Present Collegiate System in the United States in 1842. He recommended changes in the character of governing boards and in the mode of appointing instructors. He contended that professors should be appointed EDUCATION IN THE UNITED STATES 1121 in themselves, and have certainly exerted a great influence upon the country. by competition; that their tenures and salaries should depend upon their labors and success, and that means should be provided for their removal from their chairs if they proved incompetent or unfaithful. But his most radical ideas related to the course of instruction. He held that,—1. The standard of admission to college should be raised; 2. The instruction in the college should be made more thorough, even at the cost of limiting the number of studies, or of the extension of the period of residence to five or six years; 3. That the college should be developed into a university. He suggested the addition of the degree of bachelor of science, or of literature to the old A.B. degree. Dr. Wayland desired more freedom and scope for both students and teachers; he did not believe in time-limits, but in fixing the standard of scholarship, and then taking time enough to work up to it. In 1850 Dr. Wayland made his celebrated Report to the Corporation of Brown Uni-Public Instruction in Prussia to the French Minister versity on Changes in the System of Collegiate Education, in which he developed his ideas more in detail. The key-note of the report was freedom. "The various courses should be so arranged that, in so far as it is practicable, every student might study what he chose, all that he chose, and nothing but what he chose. The faculty, however, at the request of a parent or guardian, should have authority to assign to any student such courses as they might deem for his advantage." An immediate effort to carry out some of these ideas at Brown University was made; but the force of this effort did not survive Dr. Wayland's retirement from the presidency in 1855. Just what were the relations between these three educational reformers, it is hard to say. It is well known, however, that Jefferson and Ticknor were personal friends, and corresponded, and it is to be presumed that each one learned something from the other. Dr. Wayland also visited the University of Virginia. From the year 1825 onward there was, as can now be clearly seen, looking backward, a slow progressive movement in higher education, taking the country as a whole. The University of Virginia never fell back from the advance ground that it first assumed. The poet-professor Longfellow, who had studied abroad, succeeded to Ticknor's chair at Harvard College, and continued the work on the same lines. Moreover, with an occasional backset, as during the administration of Dr. Sparks, Harvard, as a whole, moved slowly in the right direction until the inauguration of President Eliot in 1869. Dr. Eliot was an apostle of the new education, and immediately entered on that policy of change which has so thoroughly renovated Harvard University. In his report for 1883-84 he announced the extension of the elective system to the freshman year, which he styled "the practical completion" of a development which began sixty years before. This extension left as the sole prescribed studies in the college, one year of rhetoric, English composition, German or French, and one year of physics or chemistry. Save alone the English composition, these requirements have since been abolished. These innovations have been strongly resisted both inside and outside of the college, but they have apparently become permanent In the mean time a new movement was preparing in the West. From the return of Everett and Ticknor to Harvard, laden with the spoil of German learning, American students, in slowly increasing numbers, went to the German universities to study, and returned home more or less Germanized in both scholarship and educational ideals. Previous to 1850, about fifty such students studied at Göttingen, and as many more at Berlin. Many of these men became professors in American colleges and universities. At the same time, German ideas were reaching the public mind, through the medium of reports, pamphlets, lectures, and the like. The American educational renaissance, to which many causes contributed, began about 1835. In 1831 M. Victor Cousin made his celebrated Report on the State of of Education, and four years later a translation of this report was published in New York. A copy of this document, either in the original or in English, made its way to the forests of Michigan, and, falling into right hands, shaped the foundations of the educational system of that young state. The constitution of 1835 recognized the so-called “Prussian ideas"; viz., three grades of public instruction, created, maintained and supervised by the state. The University of Michigan dates from 1837-the year that the state came into the Union. At first, so great is the force of tradition, the University was organized and conducted on the old-fashioned college lines; but with the coming of Dr. Henry P. Tappan as president in 1852, there entered into it a new potency, which in course of time changed it into a thoroughly modern institution of learning, the influence of which has been widely and strongly felt. The University of Michigan has been the type to which all the really vigorous and subsequent state universities have conformed more or less closely. Reference has once been made to the state universities as introducing a secular factor into the higher education. This fact, together with the possession of comparatively large resources, has given these institutions an influence in many of the Western states that has been very powerful, if not controlling. The Civil War gave education of all kinds a tremendous impetus. The states became more liberal and enterprising than before, private individuals more public-spirited. For the last thirty years it has been no uncommon thing for a single year to register an addition to the private educational benefactions of the country of ten million dollars. Several new and prominent institutions owe their origin wholly to private initiative, or to joint private and public initiative. Mention may be made of Cornell University, which opened its doors in 1868; Johns Hopkins, 1867; Vanderbilt, 1875; Leland Stanford, Junior, 1891; and Chicago University, 1892. All these institutions, and many more beside them, have been organized on modern lines, some of them very modern. Meanwhile, many old institutions have extended and strengthened their work, as Dartmouth College, Yale College, now Yale University, Columbia College, now Columbia University, the Univer sity of Pennsylvania, and Princeton College, which has recently become a university. The endow ments and incomes devoted to higher education have grown wonderfully. In 1842 President Wayland spoke of the great amount of money enlisted in higher education in New England, asserting that it amounted to $1,500,000,-a sum, be it remarked, that at present would not pay the annual expenses of the two foremost New England institutions of learning. The general development need not be followed further; but it is important to set down the distinctive features of current higher education in the United States: 1. Freedom; elective studies; 2. The wide expansion of curricula; 3. The growth of faculties; 4. Laboratory methods of instruction; 5. The use of the lecture method; 6. The employment of the seminary, which stands for research on the one side, as the laboratory does on the other; 7. Graduate study, leading to the higher degrees; 8. The differentiation of degrees, as A.B., Ph. B., B.S., and B.L.; 9. Freedom in respect to discipline, the old proctorial method having been very generally abandoned; 10. The growing conviction that a university, at least, is primarily a place for study and teaching, and not for the formation of moral or religious character; 11. The decline of the sectarian spirit, involving often the decay of ecclesiastical ideas and influence (although these ideals and influence are still strong in many denominational schools). Two or three topics should receive something more than mention. One is the growing participation of women in the higher education. Although it is little more than fifty years since the contention for such education began, the battle is already fully won. Women are admitted to the advantages of the higher training and culture in three ways: Colleges for women, as Wellesley, Smith, and Vassar; co-educational institutions, as Oberlin College (which was the first college to open its doors to women); and the state universities and "annexes," or colleges for women, affiliated with old institutions, as Ann Radcliffe College at Cambridge, and Barnard College at New York. In 1892-93 as many as 310 co-educational colleges reported to the Bureau of Education, with 27,317 male and 11,583 female students. The same year, 141 colleges for males only reported 20,130 students. The co-educational colleges included schools that threw open any or all departments to both men and women. The same year, 143 colleges for women reported 16 of higher and 127 of lower rank. The schools of the first class reported 4,023 students, the second class 18,926, or a total of 22,949. A second topic is the multiplication of schools for teaching science and technical studies, and the elevation of their standard of work. Sometimes these schools are integral parts of larger institutions, as the Lawrence and Sheffield schools at Cambridge and New Haven; sometimes they are wholly independent, as the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Different institutions have quite different ideals. The agricultural colleges are doing a good work for agriculture, but experience proves that they do not educate many farmers. The last topic is professional education. Under the old régime the candidate for the ministry, after taking his A.B. degree at college (which was, as we have seen, a semi-theological institution), pursued his theological training in some minister's study; while lawyers and doctors obtained nearly all their professional training, the first in lawyers' offices, the second in doctors' offices. In these particulars, ideals and methods have almost wholly changed; the best work in the learned professions is now done in professional schools. There were professors of divinity in the old colleges, but the first theological school was established in connection with Rutgers College, in 1784. Andover dates from 1807, Prince ton 1811, Harvard 1817, Union 1836. In 1892-93 there were 142 schools of theology in the country, with 7,836 students and 1,502 graduates. George Wythe is the first professor of law of whom we read (William and Mary College, 1779). The first law school was founded at Litchfield, Connecticut, in 1782. The Harvard school dates from 1817. In 1833 there were six law schools, with 150 students. In 1892-93 there were 63 such schools, with 6,776 students and 2,400 graduates. The first medical school in the United States was founded in Philadelphia, in connection with the university, in 1765. The Harvard school dates from 1783. In 1892-93 the Commissioner of Education published the names of 246 schools of medicine, dentistry, pharmacy, and for nurses and veterinarians, with 28,900 stu dents and 7,232 graduates. Beyond the learned professions this account need not go. Bibliography. Report of the Commissioner of Education, 1892-93; D. C. Gilman, Education in America, 17761876 (North American Review, July, 1876); M. C. Tyler, History of the American Colonies; R. H. Boone, Edu History of American Literature; H. C. Lodge, A Short cation in the United States, Josiah Quincy, History of Harvard University, F. A. Thorpe, Benjamin Franklin and the University of Pennsylvania; H. B. Adams, Contributions to Educational History (particularly No. 2, Thomas Jeffer son and the University of Virginia); same, William and Mary College; Thomas Donaldson, The Public Domain (for legislation in regard to land grants to universities and agricultural colleges); G. W. Knight, History and Management of Land Grants for Education in the Old Northwest ("Papers of the American Historical Associaton," vol. 1); B. A. Hinsdale, Documents Illustrative of Educational His tory in the United States, with Annotations (in Report of Commissioner of Education, 1892-93); same, Spirit and Ideals of the University of Michigan (Educational Review for April and May, 1896); Andrew Tenbrook, American State Universities and the University of Michigan; C. W. Eliot, Report of Harvard University for 1883-84; George Ticknor, Life, Letters and Journals; Francis Wayland, Thoughts on the Present College System of the United States; same, Report to the Corporation of Brown University, 1850; J. O. Murray, Francis Wayland; Four American Univer sities (Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Columbia) (1891); James Bryce, The American Commonwealth. See also SCHOOLS, in these Supplements. B. A. HINSDALE. EDWARDS, AMELIA BLANDFORD, an English writer of fiction, and Egyptologist, was born in Lon don in 1831, and died at Weston-super-Mare, Somersetshire, April 15, 1892. She was the daughter of a peninsular officer, and cousin of M. B. BethamEdwards, the novelist. Her taste for art and literature was evidenced from an early age, and in 1853 she AMELIA B. EDWARDS. EDWARDS began to be known to the public as a contributor to the press. Though best known as a novelist and traveler, she wrote a number of educational works, chiefly abridgments of English and French history, besides a volume of ballads, and also contributed largely to the magazines. The following are Miss Edwards's principal novels: My Brother's Wife (1855); Hand and Glove (1859); Barbara's History (1864); Half a Million of Money; Debenham's Vow (1870); In the Days of My Youth (1873); Lord Brackenbury (1875); and Miss Carew (1865), a collection of short tales. The latter years of her life she devoted chiefly to travel, the first record of which, dealing with the Dolomite region, in the southern Tyrol, was published in 1873, under the title of Untrodden Peaks and Unfrequented Valleys. This was followed, in 1877, by A Thousand Miles Up the Nile, giving an account of the remarkable discoveries made at Abu-Simbel (forty miles below the second cataract), together with a ground plan of the temple which Miss Edwards's party excavated, and other interesting archæological matter illustrated by her pen and pencil. The later fruit of the author's interest in Egyptian exploration, a fund for which she founded in London in 1883, is a work entitled Pharaohs, Fellahs and Explorers (1891), besides a number of contributions on Egyptian archæology to the magazines and reviews. During the winter of 1889-90 she lectured on her favorite topic in the United States, and received from Columbia College, New York, the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. In 1878 she compiled a volume of selections from the English poets and prose-writers for the Tauchnitz Library. Previous to her death she founded a chair of Egyptology at Oxford, and made an excellent translation of Professor Maspero's Manual (for students and travelers) of Egyptian Archæology, a guide to the study of antiquities in Egypt. EDWARDS, BELA BATES, an American clergyman; born in Southampton, Massachusetts, July 4, 1802. He was licensed to preach in 1830. From 1828 to 1833 he was assistant secretary of the American Education Society. He was made professor of Hebrew in Andover Theological Seminary in 1837, and in 1848 was elected associate professor of sacred literature. In 1828-42 he was editor of the American Quarterly Register; in 1833-35, of the American Quarterly Observer; in 1835-38, of the American Biblical Repository; and in 184452, of the Bibliotheca Sacra. He wrote several works on miscellaneous subjects, which include Biography of Self-Taught Men (1831) and Memoirs of E. Cornelius (1833). He died in Athens, Georgia, April 20, 1852. EDWARDS, HENRY STILLWELL, an American journalist and writer; born in Macon, Georgia, April 1123 He soon 23, 1855. Upon the completion of his elementary education, he studied law and was admitted to the bar of Georgia. He did not continue long in that profession, however, but soon turned to journalism. He joined the staff of the Macon Daily Telegraph, and within a few years became its editor. attracted the attention of the reading public by his stories of Southern negro life, published in the Century and other periodicals. Among these stories were Two Runaways; Ole Miss an' Sweetheart; and De Valley an' de Shadder. In 1895 he was awarded the $10,000 prize, offered by the Chicago Record for the best "mystery story," for his story, Sons and Fathers. This story established his growing reputation, and caused critics to class him among the leading writers. EDWARDS, JONATHAN, an American theologian, second son of the famous Jonathan Edwards; born in Northampton, Massachusetts, May 26, 1745. He was graduated from Princeton College in 1765. He received a license to preach in 1766; was a tutor at Princeton College from 1767 to 1769, when he became pastor of the society in White Haven, Connecticut; was made pastor of the church at Colebrook in 1796, and in 1799 became president of Union College. He wrote many important works on theological subjects, and edited his father's writings. Among such edited works were his father's History of the Work of Redemption. His own published writings included A Dissertation Concerning Liberty and Necessity (1797), an explanation of his father's "theory of the will," and Necessity of the Atonement and Its Consistency with Free Grace in Forgiveness (1785). He died in Schenectady, New York, Aug. 1, 1801. EDWARDS, JOHN ELLIS, an American Methodist Episcopal clergyman; born in Guilford, North Carolina, Aug. 1, 1814; was graduated from Randolph-Macon College and. entered the Methodist Episcopal ministry in 1834. He was prominent among the leaders in the movement toward the secession of the Southern branch of his denomination. He published Travels in Europe (1857); The Confederate Soldier (1868); The Log Meeting-House (1884); and other works. EDWARDS, JUSTIN, an American clergyman; born in Westhampton, Massachusetts, April 25, 1787. He was graduated at Williams in 1810. He was ordained in 1812; became a member of the executive committee of the New England Tract Society, and in 1821 became corresponding secretary. He was prominent in the organization, in Boston, of the "American Society for the Promotion of Temperance," in 1825. He was for a while pastor of a new church in Boston, but resigned in 1830 to devote the next six years to the cause of temperance. From 1836 to 1842 he was president of the Andover Theological Seminary, when he became secretary of the American and Foreign Sabbath Union. The last few years of his life were spent in writing on religious topics. Of one of his temperance tracts, Well-Conditioned Farm, over 750,000 copies were printed before 1857. He died at Bath Alum, Virginia, July 23, 1853. EDWARDS, LANDON BRAME, an American 1124 EDWARDS-EGAN physician, son of John Ellis Edwards; born in Prince Edward County, Virginia, Sept. 20, 1845. He served in the Confederate artillery, and, after the war, was graduated in medicine from the University of the City of New York. He acquired an extensive practice in his native state, and was one of the founders of the Medical Society of Virginia. He established the Virginia Medical Monthly in 1874, and since. 1875 has been connected with the Virginia Medical College, first as lecturer on materia medica, and later on medico-jurisprudence. He has published papers on Chloral Hydrate in Chronic Gastric Ulcer, and Strychnia in Tremulous Effects of Tobacco Smoking. EDWARDS, MATILDA BARBARA. See BETHAMEDWARDS, MATILDA BARBARA, in these Supplements. EDWARDS, NINIAN, an American lawyer and public man; born in Montgomery County, Maryland, in March, 1775. Admitted to the bar in Kentucky in 1798, and in Tennessee the following year; appointed judge of the general court of Kentucky, judge of the circuit court in 1803, of the court of appeals in 1806, and chief justice of the state two years later. From 1809 to 1818 he was governor of the territory of Illinois, and from 1818 till 1824 was a United States Senator from the state of Illinois; from 1826 to 1830 he was again governor of Illinois. He died in Belleville, Illinois, July 20, 1833. EDWARDS, NINIAN WIRT, an American lawyer and public man; son of the preceding; born in Frankfort, Kentucky, April 15, 1809; admitted to the bar of Illinois in 1833; appointed attorney-general of Illinois in 1834; a member of the legislature from 1836 to 1852. He served as superintendent of public instruction from 1854 to 1857. During the Civil War he acted as captain-commissary of subsistence. Early in his active life he married Elizabeth P. Todd, a sister of Mrs. Abraham Lincoln. This relationship drew him into an intimate friendship with Lincoln, and caused him to take part in many of the great agitations of the day. He published, in 1870, The Life and Times of Ninian Edwards, and History of Illinois, a work of permanent value. EDWARDS, OLIVER, an American soldier; born in Springfield, Massachusetts, Jan. 30, 1835. Entering the army at the beginning of the Civil War, as a lieutenant, he rose, gaining almost every step by acts of personal gallantry, to the rank of brigadiergeneral in 1865. His services were most conspicuous during the second day of the battle of the Wilderness; at Spottsylvania (1864), where he held the "bloody angle" for eleven hours with his own brigade, and at the head of twenty regiments faced the enemy for thirteen hours thereafter. He was with Sheridan in the Shenandoah valley, and received from the mayor of Richmond the surrender of the city, April 3, 1865; and at Sailor's Creek, April 5, 1865, he captured Generals Custis Lee and Ewell. General Edwards, after the war, returned to mercantile pursuits. The "Florence" oil-stove is of his invention. EDWARDSVILLE, a city and the capital of Madison County, southwestern Illinois, on the Ca hokia Creek, 19 miles N.E. of St. Louis, Missouri, on the Wabash, the Toledo, St. Louis and Kansas City, and the Chicago, Peoria and St. Louis railroads. It has two newspapers, manufactories of plumbers' supplies, bricks, carriages and wagons. A short distance out of the town is a factory of sanitary supplies, successfully operated on the co-operative plan. Population 1890, 3,561. EEL, a river of northeastern Indiana, which rises in Noble County, flows west-southwest, and enters the Wabash at Logansport. Another river of the same name, length and direction rises in Boone County, central Indiana, and enters the Wabash four miles above Newport. Below this the Wabash becomes navigable. EFFERVESCING POWDERS. See TARTARIC ACID, Vol. XXIII, pp. 69, 70. EFFINGHAM, a city and the capital of Effing. ham County, southeastern Illinois, 199 miles S.W. of Chicago, on Salt Creek, and on the Wabash, the Terre Haute and Indianapolis, and the Indiana and Illinois Southern railroads. It is engaged in the manufacture of brick principally, but has a large trade in farm produce and stock. Population 1890, 3,260. EFT OR EVET. See TRITON, Vol. XXIII, p. 577, note. EGAN, MAURICE FRANCIS, an American scholar and author; born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, May 24, 1852; graduated at La Salle College and Georgetown University, his education being specially designed for a literary career. For a while he studied law, but soon adopted journalism as a profession, editing McGee's Illustrated Weekly successfully. He afterward traveled through the Western and Southern states and Mexico, his observations being embodied in various magazine articles and letters to the press. He next became editor of the Catholic Review, and in 1881 of the Freeman's Journal. He furnished articles for Appleton's Cyclopadia, and was a frequent contributer to periodical literature. He is the author of several works, including That Girl of Mine (1877); That Lover of Mine (1877); Preludes, Sonnets, Poems and Legends (1880); The Life Around Me (1880); A Collection of Stories (1885); A Garden of Roses (1886); a collection of tales of a marked religious cast; and at various intervals, Essays in English Literature; Modern Novels and Novelists; Primer of English Literature, and The Theater and Christian Parents. His more recent publications include A Gentleman, a book on social ethics, with a chapter on What to Read (1893); The Success of Patrick Esmond; The Vocation of Edward Conway, the latter an interesting picture of American life; Jack Chumleigh, a romance; A Marriage of Reason (1893); Flower of the Flock (1894); The Glories of the Catholic Church, a contribution to encyclopædic literature; and The Best Literature of the World. He was for several years connected with Notre Dame University, Indiana, as professor of English literature, afterward occupying a position as instructor in the Catholic University of America, in Washington. EGAN, PIERCE, a British author, son of Pierce Egan (1772-1840), the author of many sporting |