650 CALAMITES CALCEOLARIA on the protection of the coast of Holland against the sea. CALANDO, in music, an Italian expression, meaning diminishing by degrees from forte to piano. It differs from decrescendo or diminuendo, as the tempo at the same time is slightly retarded, but not so much as in ritardando. The proper performance of the calando is purely a matter of good taste and feeling, depending on the performer. cine. Common species of the United States are C. Clinopodium, "basil"; C. Nepeta, "basil-thyme"; and C. glabella. All are very fragrant herbs or shrubs. CALAMITES, a group of fossil plants, which make their first appearance in the Devonian, occur abundantly in the Carboniferous, and seem to die out in the Permian strata. (See BOTANY, Vol. IV, p. 107.) There is some doubt as to the affinities of these plants; but they are generally admitted to be allied to the recent Equisetacea, or horsetails, from which, however, they differ in certain points. It has not yet been fully decided whether they should be considered as a peculiar form of Equisetaceæ, or classed as a distinct but allied order. The gigantic decorticated stem is longitudinally ribbed and transversely jointed; in some stems, long, narrow branch-south-central Spain, situated on the Guadiana, 12 lets proceed from the transverse joints, and in others, branches bearing whorls of small branchlets or long, narrow, pointed leaves. Some of the species were provided with thick and others with thin bark. Calamites seem to have grown in dense brakes on low, alluvial flats, and perhaps even in water. CALAMUS, the reed pen which the ancients used in writing. It was made of the stem of a reed growing in marshy places, of which the best were obtained from Egypt. The stem was first softened, then dried, and cut and split with a knife, as quill pens are made. Even now the Orientals write with a reed, which the Arabs call Kalâm. See PEN, Vol. XVIII, p. 483. CALAMUS, a name with a variety of botanical applications: 1. The generic name of certain Asiatic species of Palmaceæ, or palms, with creeping or climbing stems, which furnish the commercial "cane," used in rattan canes, in bridge-building, for cables, for caning chairs, etc.; 2. The common name of the highly aromatic root-stock of Acorus Calamus, or "sweet-flag," of the family Aracea, yielding the calamus-oil and acorin used in perfumery; 3. The common name of one of the sweet-scented grasses of India used in the manufacture of incense. See Vol. XII, p. 718. CALANAS, a town of Andalusia, southwest Spain, situated about 27 miles N. of Huelva, and 13 miles N.E. of Tharsis, with which it was connected by rail in 1887. There is a large copper-mine in the vicinity. Population, about 10,000. CALANCHA, ANTONIO DE LA, Peruvian Augustine monk; born in Chuquisaca, Peru, in 1584; died in Lima, March 1, 1654; held various offices in the church, the principal one being the rectorship of the college of San Ildefonso, at Lima. He is famous, however, on account of his one published writing, Crónica Moralizada del Orden de San Agustin en el Peru, an accurate account of the growth of his order in that district, and which is valued as a history of South America. CALAND, PIETER, a Dutch engineer; born in Zierikzee in 1826; graduated at Breda, at the military academy; in 1845 became a director of the bureau of dikes and drains; in 1873 became chief inspector of that bureau; is a knight of the Order of the Netherlands Lion. His great work is the artificial approach to Rotterdam, rendering that port easily accessible. He is the author of several works CALANDRONE, a wind-instrument on which Italian peasants play simple melodies, and also sometimes accompany their national songs. It has the holes of a common flute, but the intonation is produced as in the common pipe. CALATRAVA-LA-VIEGA, a ruined city of miles N.W. of Ciudad Real. In the middle ages it was a strongly fortified place, but nothing now remains except a single tower. The great battle with the Moors, fought here in 1158, gave rise to the formation of the order of Knights of Calatrava. CALATRAVA, KNIGHTS OF, members of an order, founded just after the battle of Calatrava-laViega in 1158, fought between the Moors and Spaniards. It was sanctioned by the pope in 1164. The order was in connection with the Cistercian monks at first, but the knights separated from the monks, joining them again later. They were for a time all-powerful in Spain. Their military power was crushed in 1200 and Calatrava taken by the Moors. They regained some of their power in 1212. In 1489 the grand-mastership was transferred to the crown to prevent too much power falling to any other man. The present costume is a white mantle, with a red cross cut in the form of lilies upon the left breast. The cross of the order has the same symbol on a silver ground. Membership in the order is now conferred as a reward of merit. CALBURGA, a town of the Nizam's dominions in Hindustan, 65 miles S. E. of Solapoor, and connected therewith by railway. It is situated on a tributary of the Beemah. It has been successively the capital of Hindu and Mohammedan sovereignties. Population, 6,000. CALCAREOUS TUFA OR TUFA, a mineral which in its chemical composition is nearly identical with limestone and marble, but is distinguished by its spongy and cellular structure. It is generally soft, brittle and friable, but sometimes it is sufficiently hard to be used in building (see ROME, Vol. XX, p. 808). Sometimes it incrusts animal and vegetable remains, as in "petrifying springs" (see GEOLOGY, Vol. X, p. 270), and it is sometimes used as a filteringstone. The stalactites and stalagmites found in caverns are varieties of calcareous tufa. CALCASIEU, a river of Louisiana, about 230 miles long and navigable for 100 miles. It rises in the western part of the state, flows south through Lake Calcasieu, and enters the Gulf of Mexico near the village of Cameron, 90 miles from Galveston. An iron lighthouse 53 feet high stands at its mouth. CALCEOLARIA, a South American genus of plants of the natural order Scrophulariacea. The calyx in this genus is four-partite, corolla two-lipped, CALCIFEROUS EPOCH-CALDERON the lower lip remarkably inflated so as to form a bag, and the shape of the whole in some species resembles that of a slipper. The art of the gardener has succeeded in producing varieties and hybrids which exhibit many rich and delicate tints. Some of the species are used in South America for dyeing. See HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, p. 262. CALCIFEROUS EPOCH, an epoch in the Lower Silurian system of North America. The division is characterized by the presence of calcareous sandstones and limestones, portions of which are very hard and silicious, and contain geodes of quartz crystals. The Calciferous epoch immediately succeeds the Cambrian period. CALCINATION OR CALCINING, the process of heating or roasting in furnaces the various metallic ores (see COPPER, Vol. VI, pp. 348-350) and of converting rock into cement by roasting. See CEMENTS, Vol. V, p. 328. CALCITE. See MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 396. CALCIUM, the metal present in chalk, stucco and other compounds of lime. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V, pp. 525, 526. CALCIUM CARBIDE. See CHEMISTRY, in these Supplements. CALCULATING-MACHINES. Numerous crank-operating calculating-machines have been placed on the market for multiplying and dividing, and performing other arithmetical calculations. As a rule, they have several series of number-indexes, running from o to 9, with some form of pointers, adjustable by the crank. Among the best known of these are the machines of Thomas of France, which is manufactured in an improved form by Tate of England; Odhner of Poland; Baldwin of St. Louis; and Grant of Cambridge, Massachusetts. Grant's machine consisted of a cylinder bearing a set of rings on which are the numerals. These he terms adding-rings. A similar set of rings is placed on a shaft below, and these he terms registering-wheels. In order to multiply, the adding-rings are set to read the multiplicand, and the registering-wheels the multiplier. If the multiplicand were 387,432, the crank would be turned three times and a slide shifted, then eight times and a slide shifted, and so on. At the conclusion of the turning the answer could be read on the recording-wheels. In 1889 Dorr E. Felt introduced a new form of calculating-machine, which has found large sale, and is used in Cornell University and other scientific institutions. It has a keyboard resembling that of a typewriter. The keys are numbered in two directions, from left to right and up and down. By striking the figures to be added, in the proper columns, the answer may be read at once. To multiply three figures by three figures, the operator has absolutely nothing else to do but to select three of the keys and strike them. This can be done in three seconds, as soon as one becomes familiar with the keyboard. The machine will also add, subtract, divide, square, and extract the cube root. C. H. COCHRANE. CALCULI, or stone in the bladder and gall-stone. See VESICAL DISEASES, Vol. XXIV, p. 189. CALDECOTT, RANDOLPH, an English artist; 651 born at Chester, March 22, 1846; died in St. Augustine, Florida, Feb. 12, 1886. He was for some time employed as clerk in a bank, first at Whitchurch, and afterward at Manchester. The success of his work in the London illustrated papers encouraged him to remove to the metropolis, where he soon proved himself without an equal in depicting the humors of animal life, and the joys of the countryhouse and the hunting-field. He contributed frequently to Punch and the Graphic, and occasionally exhibited at the Royal Academy, the Dudley and the Grosvenor galleries. In 1882 he became a member of the Institute of Painters in Water-Colors. His health, however, soon gave way, and after vain attempts to restore it by trips abroad, he died at St. Augustine. Randolph Caldecott will be remembered chiefly by the admirable Caldecott's Picture Books, which began in 1878 with John Gilpin and The House That Jack Built. He also illustrated Washington Irving's Old Christmas (1875); Bracebridge Hall (1877); Mrs. Comyns Carr's North Italian Folk (1878); and several other well-known works. CALDERWOOD, HENRY, Scotch theologian and writer; born in Peebles, Scotland, May 10, 1830; was graduated at Edinburgh University and United Presbyterian Theological Hall; entered the ministry of the United Presbyterian Church, being chosen pastor at Glasgow of the Greyfriars Church; became professor of moral philosophy in Edinburgh University in 1868. He has written a number of valuable works, among which are Handbook of Moral Philosophy; Relations of Mind and Brain; and Evolution and Man's Place in Nature. CALDIERO, a decayed town of North Italy, about nine miles E. of Verona. Its thermal springs were in repute as early as the first century of the Christian era, and continued to enjoy popularity until the sixteenth century, after which they gradually became neglected, and are now little visited. On the heights of Caldiero, in 1805, the Archduke Charles of Austria repulsed the French under Messéna, after a desperate engagement lasting nearly two days. CALDER, a river of Yorkshire, West Riding. It rises in a marsh on the borders of Lancashire, near Burnley, and after a course of 40 miles joins the Aire near Pontefract. It forms a considerable portion of the canal route through Yorkshire and Lancashire, between the east and the west coasts of England. CALDERON, FRANCISCO GARCIA, Peruvian statesman; born in Arequipa, Peru, in 1834; elected to the Congress in 1867; Minister of the Treasury in 1868; elected President in 1881; was taken prisoner by Chile; released in 1886, and made president of the Senate. A Dictionary of Peruvian Legislation (2 vols.) is his only published work that is known. CALDERON, PHILIP HERMOGENES, painter; born of Spanish parentage, at Poitiers, France, in 1833. He studied in London and Paris, and regularly contributed to the Royal Academy from 1853, his subjects being chiefly historical or imaginative. He exhibited at the Paris international exhibitions of 1867 and 1878, receiving at the former the first 652 CALDERON-CALEDONIAN CANAL medal awarded to English art, and at the latter a first-class medal and the Legion of Honor. In 1887 he was appointed keeper of the Royal Academy. He again exhibited in 1891. Among his paintings are After the Battle; The Siesta and Day of the Massacre of St. Bartholomew. CALDERON, SERAFIN ESTEBANEZ DE, a Spanish poet and novelist; born in Malaga in 1801; died at Madrid, Feb. 7, 1867. He was educated at the University of Granada, and in 1822 appointed as professor of belles-lettres and rhetoric at Granada. In 1837 he was governor of Seville. See SPAIN, Vol. XXII, p. 361, for a critique of his writings. CALDWELL, a city of Sumner County, southern Kansas, about 20 miles S. of Wellington, on the Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fé, the Chicago, Rock Island and Pacific, and the St. Louis and San Francisco railroads. It is the trade center of a fertile agricultural district, and contains a number of grain-elevators and flouring-mills. Population, 1,448. CALDWELL OR LAKE GEORGE, a village, the capital of Warren County, central eastern New York, situated near the head of Lake George, about 60 miles from Albany, on the Delaware and Hudson railroad. It is a very popular summer | resort. Its surroundings are picturesque and romantic; the lake is studded with numerous beautiful | islets; and in the vicinity are several places of historic interest, including Fort George and Fort William Henry. The name Horicon, commonly supposed to be the original Indian name of the lake, was a fanciful invention of Cooper, the novelist. Population 1890, 1,377. CALDWELL, a town, the capital of Noble County, southeast Ohio, situated about 30 miles E. of Zanesville and 35 miles N. of Marietta, on the Bellaire, Zanesville and Cincinnati and the Cleveland and Marietta railroads. It has a sash and door factory, and in the vicinity are found coal, iron, oil and salt. Population 1890, 1,248. CALDWELL, a town, the capital of Burleson County, central Texas; 66 miles N.E. of Austin; on the Gulf, Colorado and Santa Fé railroad. A Normal Institute is located here. Population 1890, 1,250. CALDWELL, CHARLES HENRY BROMEDGE, an American naval officer; born in Hingham, Massachusetts, June 11, 1823; died in Waltham, Massachusetts, Nov. 30, 1877. He entered the navy as midshipman in 1838, and became lieutenant in 1852. He commanded the Itasca in 1862, when an attack was made on Forts Jackson and St. Philip, and led a party of men who cleared away the chain obstruction which prevented the Union gunboats from passing the forts. Lieutenant Caldwell was in the action at Grand Gulf in 1862, and was soon afterward made commander. He subsequently commanded the Essex, the Glaucus and the R. R. Cuyler, and in 1874 was promoted to the rank of commodore. CALDWELL, HOWARD H., poet; born at Newbury, South Carolina, in 1831; has contributed 1831; has contributed largely to periodicals, and published two volumes of poems, Oliatta and other Poems and Poems. CALDWELL, JAMES, American patriot and cler gyman; born in Charlotte County, Virginia, in April, 1734; shot by a sentry, near Elizabeth, New Jersey, Nov. 24, 1781. He was a graduate of Princeton in 1759, and became pastor of a Presbyterian church in Elizabeth, three years later. During the agitation preceding the Revolution he was active in arousing the spirit of rebellion, and was subsequently chaplain in the American army. A monument commemorating his life and service was erected at Elizabeth in 1846. He was known as the " Fighting Parson," and to him is credited the saying, "Now put Watts into them, boys," as he had supplied his men with hymnbooks to use for gun-wadding. CALDWELL, JOSEPH, educator; born in Lamington, New Jersey, April 21, 1773; died at Chapel Hill, North Carolina, Jan. 24, 1835. He graduated at Princeton in 1791, taught school in his native place and also in Elizabeth, and in 1796 was appointed to the chair of mathematics in the University of North Carolina. Thereafter he devoted his energies to the upbuilding of that institution, and to him is due the merit of having saved it from ruin. In 1804 Dr. Caldwell became president of the university, which position he occupied until his death, with the exception of the years 1812-17. CALDWELL, MERRITT, educator; born in Hebron, Oxford County, Maine, Nov. 29, 1806; died in Portland, June 6, 1848. He graduated at Bowdoin in 1828, and in the same year became principal of the Maine Wesleyan Seminary. In 1834 he was elected professor of mathematics at Dickinson College, Pennsylvania, and in 1837 was transferred to the chair of metaphysics and English literature, which position he occupied until his death. Among his published works are The Doctrine of the English Verb; Philosophy of Christian Perfection; and Christianity Tested by Eminent Men. CALDWELL, SAMUEL LUNT, educator; born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, Nov. 13, 1820; died at Providence, Rhode Island, Sept. 26, 1889. He was educated at Colby University, Waterville, Maine. He subsequently graduated at the Newton Theological Institute, and became pastor of a Baptist church at Bangor, Maine, and afterward at Providence, Rhode Island. He held a professorship in Newton Theological Institue, and in 1878 was called to the presidency of Vassar College; this position he resigned in 1885. He published sermons, orations and lectures, and edited volumes 3 and 4 of Publications of the Narragansett Club. CALEDONIA, a village, the capital of Houston County, southeast Minnesota, situated about 32 miles S. of Winona, on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad. It contains manufactories of wagons and sleighs, and is the center of an important local trade, and the seat of Caledonia Academy. Population 1895, 1,045. CALEDONIA, a village, the capital of Traill County, central eastern North Dakota, situated at the confluence of Goose River with the Red River of the North. It is an important shipping-point for grain on river steamers. Population 1890, 267. CALEDONIAN CANAL. See CANAL, Vol. IV, p. 787. CALEDONIA SPRINGS-CALIFORNIA CALEDONIA SPRINGS, a village of Prescott County, Ontario, Canada, about 10 miles S. of L'Original. It contains a number of alkaline medicinal springs, noted for their efficacy in the cure of rheumatic and cutaneous diseases. Population 1890, 100. CALENDER OR KALENDAR, a Persian word (meaning "greater") applied to members of an order of dervishes founded in the fourteenth century. The Calenders are wandering preachers, who hold that sin defiles the body only, and can be removed by ablutions. The members of the order, even during the lifetime of its founder, were remarkable for licentiousness and debauchery. See also GUILD, Vol. XI, p. 260. CALENDS, the first day of each Roman month. See CALENDAR, Vol. IV, p. 665. CALENTURE, an obsolescent term for a species of temporary fever occurring on board ship in hot climates, and probably due to the effect of exposure to the direct rays of the sun. CALFA, AMBROISE, known to some as INSUF BEY, Armenian historian and scholar; born in Constantinople, March 2, 1830; joined the Mekhitarists and was educated by that order in Venice. Upon the completion of his studies there in 1848, he was sent to the Mekhitarist college, Murat, in Paris, being given a position in the faculty. In 1854 he retired to become the organizer of a school at Grenelle. This he left in 1857, on account of ill health, after which time he devoted himself to translation and to historical writing. These works include a Universal History, Guide to Conversation, an Armenian-French Dictionary, etc. CALFA, CORÈNE, Armenian writer and scholar; brother of the preceding; born in Constantinople in 1835; educated by the Mekhitarists in Venice; editor-in-chief of the journal Polyhistore; followed his brother to Paris and became an instructor at the Murat College; soon took a high rank among the Armenian clergymen; was made bishop, and in 1875 archbishop. He published a book of poems under the title La Colombe du Massis, and later published an Armenian Grammar; a History of Armenia; a treatise on the French Language, for the Use of Armenians, and Lectures on Religion. CALGARY, a town of the Alberta district, Northwest Territory of Canada; on the Canadian Pacific railway, 840 miles W. of Winnipeg. It stands. 3,380 feet above the sea-level, in a broad valley between the Bow and Elbow rivers, and is a trading center for a wide district. It dates from 1884. Population 1891, 3,876. CALHOUN, a town, the capital of Gordon County, northwest Georgia; 78 miles N. W. of Atlanta; on the Western and Atlantic railroad. A rich farming region surrounds it, and brick manufactories and a planing-mill are located here. Population 1890, 680. CALHOUN, a town, capital of McLean County, western Kentucky, on the Green River, 65 miles N.W. of Bowling Green; the river is navigable the year around. Population 1890, 637. CALI, SANTIAGO DE, a city of the Cauca state, Colombia, South America, situated on a tributary of the Rio Cauca, 3,300 feet above the sea. It is 653 | the most important city in Cauca. It is connected with Buenaventura by rail, and has considerable trade with that port. Population, 13,000. CALIANO, a small town of the Austrian Tyrol, on the left bank of the Adige, about 9 miles S. of Trent. It figures in history as the place where the Austrian Archduke Sigismund won a signal victory over the Venetians in 1487. Being a place of considerable military importance, it was also contested in the campaigns of 1797 and 1809. CALIBER OR CALIBRE, a technical name for the diameter of the bore of a firearın, whether a piece of ordnance or a small arm. If the weapon is rifled, its caliber is measured, not from the bottom of the grooves, but from the smooth surface between them, technically called the "bands." In the United States the caliber of a firearm is expressed in decimal parts of an inch; thus what is commonly called a 44-caliber rifle is one of 44-inch. The caliber of a cannon is expressed either by the diameter of its bore or by the weight of a solid round shot which it will carry. In Great Britain caliber is expressed as in the United States, with the exception of the heavy guns, which are denominated from their weight; as, a 38-ton gun, or a 100-ton gun. CALICO-BASS, the common grass bass (Pomonys sparoides). It is found in the United States from the Great Lakes to the Gulf, and is prized as a game and food fish. CALIFORNIA, a city, the capital of Moniteau County, central Missouri; in the midst of a rich agricultural and mineral-producing district; on the Missouri Pacific railroad. It contains a number of mills for the manufacture of flour, paper and woolen goods. Population 1890, 1,772. CALIFORNIA, a borough of Washington County, southwest Pennsylvania; on the Monongahela River, 50 miles S. W. of Pittsburg; on the Reading and Southwestern railroad; steamboats ply between it and Pittsburg; the Southwestern Normal School is located here. Population 1890, 1,024 CALIFORNIA embraces within the boundary of the state proper an area of 153,600 square miles, which confronts the Pacific Ocean along a coast-line more than 700 miles in length, and extending through nine and one half degrees of latitude. The EUREKA STATE SEAL OF CALIFORNIA. state has an average breadth of about two hundred miles. In addition to this territory of 98,304,000 acres, California also includes 4,760 square miles of lakes, islands, bays, navigable rivers, salt marsh and tide-lands, making the total area 158,360 square miles, or 101,350,400 acres. California is second among the states in size, and comprises 4.4 per cent of the entire area of the United States, and is greater in extent than the combined states of Connecticut, cement rocks and some metalliferous ores. The principal rivers of the state are the Sacramento and the San Joaquin, the courses of both of which lie in the great central valley mentioned. The Sacramento rises in Mt. Shasta and flows south; the San Joaquin rises in the Tulare Lake, in the south end of the valley, and flows north. Near latitude 38° these rivers unite and flow west into the San Francisco Bay. Both have many small tributaries. The Sacramento, 370 miles long, is navigable for 120 miles from San Francisco; the San Joaquin, 350 miles long, is navigable for steamers for about the same distance. In the north, the Klamath River, which has its source in Oregon, flows west into the Pacific. The Colorado, which forms the southeast boundary of the state, is navigable for more than 500 miles from its mouth. Of the numerous rivers of the Coast Range, only one, the Salinas, flowing into the Bay of Monterey, is navigable. California has several large lakes, the principal one of which, Tulare, is at the southern end of the central valley. It receives King, Kern, White and Tule rivers. Upon the east slope of the Sierra are several large lakes, among them being Klamath, Goose, Honey and Owens, and other small lakes, many of which are alkaline and without outlet. Lake Tahoe, at the angle in the boundary between California and Nevada, is a beautiful body of pure water, about 20 miles long and averaging 1,500 feet in depth. It is one of the most elevated lakes on the continent. In the southeast there are many deep depressions, formerly lakes, similar to the noted Death Valley, which is 400 feet below the sea, and is a waterless, barren desert. Delaware, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, | lina, furnishing several varieties of marble, valuable Massachusetts, Maine, Rhode Island, Ohio and Vermont. The state is made up of mountain and valley land of great diversity of features. Two great mountain ranges traverse it from northwest to southeast the Sierra Nevada, or Snowy Mountains, in the eastern and the Coast Range in the western part of the state. In the north these two ranges join indistinguishably, and in the south again, in the neighborhood of the Tejon pass, they become united into one chain, the San Bernardino Range. These two ranges have many branches, the most important being the San Diablo, Palo Scrito, Santa Lucia, San Rafael and Santa Inez mountains. Besides the numerous fertile valleys contained between their spurs and lateral ranges, their foothills inclose the great central valley of California. The eastern crest of the Sierras rises from 6,800 to 15,000 feet, and the western crest from one single tide-level gap at Carquinez Straits to elevations of from 900 to 9,000 feet. The highest peaks of the Sierra Nevada are Mt. Whitney, 14,898 feet high, at the south termi- | nus, and Mt. Shasta, 14,442 feet high, at the north terminus. Mt. Whitney is the highest point of land within the United States, and within seventy miles is Death Valley, the lowest. Between Mt. Whitney and Mt. Shasta lie, in succession from north to south, Lassen's Peak, 10,577 feet; Castle Peak, 12,500 feet; Mt. Tyndall, 14,386 feet; Mt. Brewer, 13,886 feet; and Mt. Dana, 13,227 feet. The Coast Range is of much less altitude, varying from 4,000 feet in the north to 8,000 in the south end. (See Vol. IV, p. 697.) The northern part of the state is entirely covered by the interlocking.spurs of the two ranges, which gives it a very rugged character. The south part is traversed by numerous broken ranges, and is extremely sterile, owing to the lack of water. A narrow belt along the coast of this southern portion is very fertile, greatly favored in respect to climate, and possesses much beautiful scenery. The most of the coast-line of the state is rocky, and good harbors are few. The Bay of San Francisco forms one of the best and most capacious harbors on the west coast of North America, and one of the finest in the world. It is nearly fifty miles in length, with a breadth averaging nine miles, with good anchorage, deep water and perfect shelter on all sides. Its entrance is a strait about five miles long and one mile wide, inclosed between high cliffs, and called the Golden Gate. Within the bay are numerous islands, among which is Mare Island, used as a navy-yard by the government. Humboldt Bay, on the north coast, is the best harbor in that part of the state. Southward from San Francisco are the bays of Santa Cruz, Monterey, San Luis Obispo, San Pedro and San Diego, of which the last, at the extreme south end of the coast, is next to San Francisco Bay, both for security and for advantageous geographical position. Of the islands off the coast, the rocky group called the Farallones, opposite the Golden Gate, have been the favorite resort for seafowl, whose eggs are collected there in great quantities. Off the south coast are several much larger mountainous islands, occupied as grazing-lands for large flocks of sheep; the largest one, Santa Cata California has a great variety of climates, the wide range of temperature and climatic variations being due to differences in elevation and latitude and distance from the sea. These differences extend from the arctic temperature of 15,000 feet above to the semi-torrid climate of 400 feet below the sea-level. In 1895 the highest temperature recorded in the state was 124°, the lowest 23° below zero-an absolute range of 147°. The water of the ocean remains very equable, as regards temperature, throughout the year, varying but little from 52° to 54°. At San Francisco the freezing-point is not reached for entire years at a time, and a record of 17 consecutive years shows that but for 6 days of the time did the thermometer register 90°. The mean temperature of the coldest months, December and January, is 50°; that of the warmest month, September, 60°; the yearly mean, 55°. The normal annual temperature for the state is 60.1°. In the interior the climate varies indefinitely, every valley having a climate of its own. Sudden fluctuations of temperature are unknown throughout the state. The Colorado desert, in the southeast corner of the state, has a climate extremely hot and dry, and Fort Yuma is probably the hottest place in the United States. The warm and dry air of portions of southern California, where roses bloom every month of the year, is healthful and favorable to invalids, particularly consumptives. Monterey, San Diego, San Bernardino, Los Angeles and Santa Barbara have become winter sanatoriums, |