famed throughout the world. The death rate per | thousand in 1894 was 9.71, which, while very low as compared with other states, is still not a fair comparison, as so many invalids in the last stages of pulmonary diseases come into the state too late to be benefited, and add materially to the death rate. The northern part of the state, latitude 42°, is just within the extreme summer limit of the north temperate rain-belt. This limit in winter shifts a little south of the southern end of the state, and thus California has the full benefit of the winter rains and enjoys a summer comparatively rainless. The mean annual precipitation in the northwestern part of the state, and upon the exposed flanks of the Sierras and Coast Range is from 80 to 100 inches, while in the southeastern part there are comparatively rainless areas, receiving but from 2 to 4 inches annually. At San Diego and Monterey but 10 inches on an average fall, while at San Francisco the mean is close to 21 inches. Between these extremes of from 80 to 100 inches, and 2 to 4 inches, there lies every degree of average annual moisture. The rains are sudden and showery, as in the tropics, but thunder-storms are almost unknown. December is the month of greatest rain. Snow is rare, except in the Sierras, and hail falls only occasionally.

The distribution and variety of vegetation over an area of such extreme range of climatic and moisture conditions is marvelous and comprehensive. The cone-bearing trees excel in size and variety any other known area. The drier portions present a wealth of palm, cactus and yucca that bewilders the botanist. In sections the forest growth is sometimes so dense that more than a million feet of lumber can be cut from a single acre, while other areas are absolutely devoid of vegetation. Between extremes of such scope are found vegetations of every class and kind.

The agricultural products of California are many and varied, and agriculture is now the chief occupation of the people, as mining once was. The farming-lands of the state are estimated to cover an area of nearly 22,co0,000 acres, of a value of about $700,000,000, producing about 4 per cent of the farm products of the United States. The growth of the cereals is extensive, and stands first in importance among the products of the soil. In the raising of wheat the state stands second. The yield in 1893 was 36,158,000 bushels, but by reason of the low price of that staple it did not bring as much as the crop of some former years, notably 1882, when the wheat harvest brought $43,000,000. The 93,945 acres planted to corn in 1895 produced 2,556,500 bushels, scarcely sufficient for home consumption; 111,367 acres sown to oats brought 3,160,661 bushels in the season of 1894; and the same year, 1,671,998 acres in barley gave a return of 22,913,617 bushels. Of this latter cereal California raises almost 30 per cent of the entire crop of the United States, standing first, and, with New York, producing about one half of the whole amount raised in this country. In the production of beans California stands second, raising near 1,000,000 bushels annually, which constitutes about 23 per cent of the entire crop. For 1894 the crop of hops amounted to 8,658,962 pounds,

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bringing to the growers $1,561,617, and being fully 17 per cent of the product of the states and territories. Other crops are hay, rye, broom corn, tobacco, cotton, sugar-cane, sorghum, alfalfa, millet and hemp. The state stands foremost in the production of the leading fruits and vegetables, raising especially fine peaches, apples, pears, grapes, plums, prunes, apricots, nectarines, cherries, figs, olives, oranges, lemons, quinces, limes, pomegranates, pomelos, persimmons, citron, bananas, guava, mulberries, raspberries, strawberries, blackberries, etc. In the growing of nuts the state stands first, raising and exporting large quantities of almonds, chestnuts, English walnuts, pecans, peanuts and filberts, which, from their excellent quality, find a ready market. California stands first in the production of grapes, having over 300,000 acres planted to vineyards, producing over 60 per cent of the wine made in the United States, and furnishing all of the raisins grown. The wine and brandy exported in 1895 amounted in value to almost $7,000,000.

Beets, carrots, cabbages, cauliflower, celery, lettuce, melons, onions, parsnips, peas, potatoes, radishes, tomatoes and turnips are among the leading vegetables shipped to places with less favorable climate. Canaigre is raised for use in tanning leather, and licorice-root is being extensively cultivated, both proving profitable industries. Olives are raised for the purpose of the extraction of the oil, as well as for pickling, and the purity of the olive-oil produced has gained for it a demand greater than the supply. In the production of beet sugar the state stands first, furnishing 80 per cent of the entire amount made in the United States. The amount of this commodity produced in the crop season of 1893-94 was in excess of 42,000,000 pounds, bringing the sum of $2,046,520. (See BEET SUGAR, in these Supplements.)

Stock-raising is a profitable industry, as is dairyfarming, the climatic conditions being favorable to both. Nowhere else does live-stock multiply more rapidly and mature earlier without shelter or cultivated food than in the valleys of California. This is particularly true of the country west of the Sierra Nevadas, where the mildness of the winters is very favorable to every branch of stock-raising. Horses, cattle, sheep, swine, and Angora goats are all extensively raised, and the state is the home of some of the finest and highest-priced animals of the above kinds in the world. The state stands third in the number of sheep, and second in the amount of wool produced, the clip of 1894 being 30,000,000 pounds. Much attention is given to apiculture, and the honey produced amounts to about 10 per cent of the entire amount marketed in this country.

The mineral resources of California are varied and of much importance. and of much importance. The production of gold, in which the state stands first, shows that California produced 38 per cent of the gold mined in the United States. United States. The production of the precious metal for 1895 amounted to $15,334,317.69, and estimates of the amount mined since its discovery in 1849 place its value at $1,269,049,711. The silver annually produced has also a large value. Quicksilver, mined nowhere else on this continent, yields

a large annual return, that for 1885 being $1,337,131. Platinum, produced nowhere else in the United States, yields a large return, and the mining is constantly increasing. Borax, found only in California | and Nevada, gives an annual yield of great value, that of 1894 being $807,800. This was the sole production of the United States, the Nevada mines not being worked. Asphaltum is found in large quantities, and the state furnishes 93 per cent of the amount produced in the United States. Macadam rock and rubble-stone are both largely quarried, and yield a handsome return from exports, as does clay for brick and pottery, these three products yielding a million and a half dollars annually, in addition to the amount consumed at home. Excellent granite, salt, limestone and bituminous rock are also largely shipped, as are antimony, asbestos, chrome, copper, gypsum, lead, magnesite, marble, mineral paint, onyx, paving-blocks and slate. The only deposits of chromic iron in the United States are found in California. In 1895 the production was valued at $16,795, and the mining of this valuable mineral is constantly increasing. Iron ore is found in some localities, but the little coal that is mined is of indifferent quality, and not only does the lack of proper fuel retard the iron industry, but seriously impedes other manufacturing enterprises. New fields are in course of development, and coal of better quality than that heretofore found is coming into the manufacturing centers. Mineral waters, natural gas and petroleum are other important substances in the realm of mineral industry, the last named being produced in large quantities, and new fields being from time to time developed. In the summer of 1896 excellent wells were discovered in Fresno County, nine miles north of Coalinga. Petroleum has afforded the southern part of the state a very cheap fuel, and has caused a number of mines and factories to be operated which would otherwise have remained idle. The petroleum product in 1894 amounted to $1,064,521, and in 1895 the production was increased 50 per cent, but the value was much decreased.

California has an abundant water-power, the configuration of the country making its utilization cheap, and the transmission of electricity from points of generation easy. It is estimated that the water-power available for the development of electrical energy is amply sufficient to furnish the power to drive every kind of machinery within the state. Among the manufactures of the state are mining and agricultural machinery, lumber, leather, woolen goods, flour, silk, sugar, chemicals, etc. The census of 1890 shows about 8,000 establishments in operation, with an aggregate capitalization of almost $150,000,000, employing 83,000 operatives and paying $51,000,000 for annual wages.

75,000 feet of lumber, and a yield of from 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 feet per acre is by no means rare. Other varieties of timber are ash, beech, black live-oak, English oak, black oak, white oak, blue oak, cedar, elm, sycamore, hemlock, locust, maple, walnut, willow and poplar. Considerable amounts of lumber are shipped to all parts of the world, much being sent to seaports in Europe, Australia and South America. In 1894 over 300,000,000 feet were handled at the single port of San Francisco.

In 1891 the value of all goods imported into. California was $51,481,365, the value of the exports $40,563,595, making a total of $92,044,960, about 5 per cent of the total imports and exports of the United States.

One of the greatest points of interest in the state is the beautiful Yosemite Valley. (See Vol. IV, p. 698.) Near the Yosemite Valley, and in the same county, is the Mariposa Big Tree Grove, containing about 500 of these mammoth trees (Sequoia gigantea). (See Vol. IV, p. 704). June 30, 1864, Congress passed an act donating the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Big Tree Grove to the state of California, to be held for public use, resort and recreation, inalienable for all time. A commission was appointed by the governor, and it, with its successors, have expended considerably in excess of $300,000 in making all points accessible to the public, in preserving and protecting the natural scenery and in general improvements. The grant of the Yosemite Valley was described as "the cleft or gorge in the Granite Peak of the Sierra Nevada Mountains, . . . with its branches and spurs, in estimated length 15 miles, and in average width one mile back from the main edge of the precipice on each side of the valley." The grant of the Big Tree Grove embraced less than the area of four sections of land, or about 2,500 acres.

The grizzly, black and brown bear now are scarcely found except in the mountain fastnesses. Seven species of the fox are known, and in the high Sierras the fisher and American sable, or marten, are found. Sea-lions frequent the rocks and islands near the seashore, and fur-seals occasionally appear at the Farallones. The California otter, and sea-otter, cougar, jaguar, lynx, gray wolf, coyote, skunk and wolverine are natives of the state, and the beaver and gray ground-squirrel are very common. The elk is still found in the forests of the north counties, and there are several varieties of deer, the black-tail being the most common. Antelopes are being rapidly exterminated. The mountain-sheep, or "bighorn," is found in the mountains of the Sierra Nevada. All the birds common to temperate climate are well represented, there being 350 species native to the state. Grouse and quails, or partridges, geese and ducks abound. The state is well supplied with fish, and a large business is done in the exportation of dried and canned fish of several kinds. The product in 1890 was valued at $4,463,369, furnish

industry is a considerable one, amounting to about $750,000 annually. Whales are found along the coast in large numbers, and their product, together with that of seals, amounted in 1890 to the sum of

$2,490,373. There are many reptiles, but only one poisonous serpent, the rattlesnake.

Much of the land in the southern and southeastern part of the state is arid from lack of water, and for some years much attention has been given to irrigation. In 1894 the acreage under irrigation exceeded 5,500,000 acres, of which some 3,800,000 acres was under cultivation. (See IRRIGATION, in these Supplements.)

The school system of the state is admirably modeled and well conducted, being under the direct control of a state board of education, consisting of five members, with the governor as ex officio president of the board. The average annual attendance of children at the state schools is about 240,000. There are about 3,000 school districts, 60 high schools, 1,900 grammar schools, 2,800 primary schools, 3,250 public school buildings and about 6,000 teachers. The annual expenditures for school purposes are about $5,000,000. The principal insti

STATE CAPITOL, SACRAMENTO.

tutions for superior instruction are the University of California and the Leland Stanford Junior University. (See CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF; and also LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVERSITY, in these Supplements.) There are 13 other colleges, 4 theological schools, I of law and 3 of medicine, in addition to many seminaries of high grade, as well as many commercial and business colleges. There are normal schools located at Chico, Los Angeles and San José, the three having a total attendance of about 2,000 students, and receiving state aid to the amount of about $100,000 annually. The San Francisco Academy of Sciences is an institution of high rank. The textbooks used in the state schools are printed under the supervision of the state board of education and furnished to pupils at actual cost.

The state library at Sacramento contains about 95,000 volumes, and is liberally sustained by legislative appropriation. In 1880 an act was passed providing for the establishment of free public libraries and the maintenance of the same, with readingrooms attached. Under this law about 30 of these institutions have been organized and are actively operated, with over 300,000 volumes on their shelves. In addition are many other libraries free to the public, supported by societies or subscription.

In 1894 California had 35 national banks and 175 state banks, with a combined capital exceeding $53,000,000. There were also 60 savings banks, and

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these, together with the state and national institutions, held individual deposits in excess of $190,

000,000.

The number of miles of railroad in operation in California exceeds 4,500.

According to the census of 1890, there were 11 religious denominations represented in the state, with 1,542 organizations, having 1,493 churches and halls, a membership of 255,869, and the value of the church property given as $10,656,376.

The charitable and educational institutions include the California state institution for the deaf and dumb and the blind, located at Berkeley, about four miles north of the city of Oakland. Some 250 afflicted persons are inmates, and the cost to the state is about $60,000 annually. The Industrial Home of Mechanical Trades for Adult Blind at Oakland has about 100 inmates, the current expenses of operating the home being about $20,000 annually. The California Home for Feeble-Minded Children, located at Glen Ellen, has about 300 inmates, requiring nearly $50,000 annually for their maintenance. The state provides five asylums for the care of her insane. They are located, respectively, at Napa, Stockton, Agnews, Mendocino and San Bernardino. These institutions are admirably conducted, and so liberal is the manner in which the unfortunate insane are cared for that California ranks second among the states in the comparative cost of maintaining asylums. At Yountville is located a veterans' home, where over 400 ex-sailors and soldiers are cared for, and the institution ranks first among the similar institutions of the kind in the United States in point of economical management, and fourth in point of benefits conferred.

California stands second in rank in the comparative cost of prisons. The largest of these correctional institutions is the state prison located at San Quentin, about 1c miles north of San Francisco, on the waters of the bay. About 1,200 prisoners are here confined, and about 700 are kept at Folsom, a town about 20 miles northeast of Sacramento, on the American River. About half a mile from the village of Ione, in Amador County, is the Preston School of Industry. It is not conducted on the plan of a penal institution, but rather, as its name indicates, as an industrial school, designed to be a place of reformation for boys whose habits of life and environment are leading them toward a criminal career. There is also a Reform School for Juvenile Offenders located at Whittier, some 15 miles southeast of Los Angeles, which has on an average 250 boys and 50 girls, all of whom are taught some useful trade or occupation to fit them for contact with the world.

California has a national guard, with an average strength of 5,000 officers and men. The annual appropriation for the maintenance of the guard is near $100,000, and from the general government sums ranging from $10,000 to $20,000 have been annually received, mostly in the way of arms and accoutrements. The state stands fourth in the comparative cost of the maintenance of its militia force.

In 1890 the sum expended for the support of the state and local governments reached $24,000,000,

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giving the state the rank of sixth in this connection. Within the past few years this has been much decreased, retrenchment and economy prevailing with the officials having the power to regulate expendi

tures.

The assessed value of all kinds of property for the year 1894 was $1,216,700,283, constituting about 4 per cent of the entire property of the United States. This valuation gives a per capita ownership of $2,097, the largest of any of the states. The total state debt amounts to $2,282,500.

The state is divided into 57 counties, in 56 of which newspapers are published. There are 647 newspapers published, of which 102 are daily, 458 weekly, and the remainder ranging from four times a week to monthly.

The principal cities and towns of California are as follows, the populations given being according to the census of 1890: San Francisco, 298,997; Los Angeles, 50,395; Oakland, 48,682; Sacramento, 26,386; San José, 18.060; San Diego, 16,159; Stockton, 14,424; Alameda, 11,165; Fresno, 10,818; Vallejo, 6,343; Santa Barbara, 5,864.

The population of California has increased rapidly since 1850, the date of the admission of the state to the Union. It was then 92,597. In 1860 it had increased to 379,994. The increase during the next ten years was not so great, the census of 1870 giving the population as 560,247. In 1880 the number had increased to 864,694, and in 1890 to 1,208,130. Of this latter number 1,111,558 were white; 71,681 were Chinese; 12,355 were Indians; 11,437 were colored, and 1,069 were Japanese. The census of 1890 disclosed the fact that California had about two per cent of the entire population of the United States, thus ranking twenty-second. The total vote cast for governor in 1894 was 284,548, indicating an increase in the population since the taking of the decennial census of about the required number of inhabitants to bring the whole number of people up to the estimates made for that year, which were 1,250,000.

The following is a list of the governors of the state since California was admitted to the Union:

1849, Peter H. Burnett; 1851, John McDougal; 1852, John Bigler; 1856, J. Neely Johnson; 1858, John B. Weller; 1860, Milton S. Latham; 1860, John G. Downey; 1862, Leland Stanford; 1863, Frederick F. Low; 1867, Henry H. Haight; 1871, Newton Booth; 1875, Romualdo Pacheco; 1875, William Irwin; 1880, George C. Perkins; 1883, George Stoneman; 1887, Washington Bartlett; 1887, R. W. Waterman; 1891, H. H. Markham; 1895, James H. Budd. See CALIFORNIA, Vol. IV, pp. 694 et seq. CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF, at Berkeley, California; established in 1868 by act of the legislature; founded in reality 13 years previous as the College of California, which first organized classes in 1860. The Agricultural College is a part of the University. The University is supported by legislative appropriation in the form of an annual state tax. The Agricultural College receives aid from the United States government. Within the last few years large | private benefactions have been received. Martin Kellogg is its president. There were, in 1895, 235

in the faculty, with 2,000 students. It has a library of 65,000 volumes. Since its foundation it has graduated 2,431.

CALIPPIC PERIOD. See CALENDAR, Vol. IV, p. 668.

CALISTHENICS is the Greek name for exercises promoting gracefulness and strength, and comprises the more gentle forms of gymnastics, especially for girls. It now constitutes an important part of the physical training of girls at American colleges. A notable system of physical culture has been inaugurated at Wellesley College, near Boston, Massachusetts. In that institution a fine gymnasium, elaborately equipped, was erected in the fall of 1891, and three hours per week of attendance, under competent instructors, were required of every member of the freshman class. The results, which have been watched with much interest, have proved very satisfactory, not only in the development of physique and a marked improvement in the carriage and vigor of the girl students, but in their increased capacity for mental application, and similar departments have been organized in all of the larger educational institutions of the United States. See GYMNASTICS, Vol. XI, p. 348.

CALISTOGA, a town of Napa County, central eastern California, situated near the petrified forest, about 65 miles N. of San Francisco, on the Southern Pacific railroad, 3 miles from the base of Mt. St. Helena. It is noted for its mineral springs, and is a popular summer resort. Wine-making and mining are its principal industries.

CALIVER, a matchlock or firearm about midway in size and character between an arquebus and a musket, used in the sixteenth century. It was small enough to be fired without a rest or support.

CALIXTINES, the more moderate sections of the Hussites in Bohemia. See HUSSITES, Vol. XII, p. 407.

CALLA, an aquatic or marsh-loving genus of Aracea, of a single species, Calla palustris, the water arum. It has white spathes, cordate heart-shaped leaves, flowers crowded up to the extremity of the spadix, and red berries. It is widely distributed through the cold marshes of Europe and North America, and acquires some economic importance in Lapland and parts of Russia, from the fact that its root-stock, when deprived of its acrid properties by cooking, is a source of starchy matter, used in breadmaking. The well-known and beautiful Richardia, the calla of house-cultivation, is an allied genus. See HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, p. 264.

CALLANDER, a village in Perthshire, central Scotland, on the left bank of the Teith, 16 miles N.W. of Stirling. It lies in a beautiful and romantic situation, surrounded by the lofty mountains and Highland lakes of the TROSSACHS (q.v., in these Supplements), and is a famous resort for tourists. Population, 1,538.

CALLENDER, JOHN, historian; born in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1706; died in Newport, Rhode Island, Jan. 26, 1748. Island, Jan. 26, 1748. He came of a distinguished Puritan family, two members of which have been ministers. He graduated at Harvard, and became pastor successively of a Baptist church in Boston; in

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Politique de la France dans les Affaires d'Allemagne et d'Italie; and Les Ophidiennes.

CALLERNISH, a district on the west coast of the island of Lewis, of the Hebrides group, 16 miles from Stornoway, remarkable for its prehistoric stone circles, of which there are four, at no great distance apart. Similar circles are found at Stonehenge, England, described under RUDE STONE MONUMENTS, Vol. XXI, p. 51; see also ARChitecture, Vol. II, p. 383; LEWIS AND HARRIS, Vol. XIV, p. 492.

CALLICHTHYS, a genus of fishes found in South America. They are characterized by two rows of bony plates on either side, which extend the entire length of the body. See SILURIDE, Vol. XXII, p. 69.

CALLIGONUM, a genus of plants of the family Polygonacea, having a quadrangular fruit winged at the angles. The best-known species is a succulent shrub found on the sandy steppes near the Caspian Sea, where its acid shoots and fruit often serve to allay thirst. The roots afford a nutritious gum.

CALLIGRAPHY. See PALEOGRAPHY, Vol. XVIII, pp. 143 et seq.

CALLINGER OR KALINJAR, one of the hill forts of Bundelcund, India, district of Banda, 112 miles N.W. of Allahabad; elevated 1,200 feet above the adjacent plain. From its position and size it must at one time have been a place of great strength. At the base of the rock stands a town of the same name, which, though much decayed, still bears testimony of its ancient grandeur. See BANDA, Vol. III, p. 309.

CALLITRIS, a genus of the Conifera. See MOROCCO, Vol. XVI, p. 833; also SANDARACH, Vol. XXI, p. 256.

CALLUS, a botanical term with the following applications: 1. A parenchyma tissue which covers wounds preceding the formation of cork. From these callus-cells adventitious roots and buds may arise.

The term is applied in horticulture to the cap formed over the end of a cutting. 2. A peculiar substance which covers both surfaces and lines the pits of the "sieve-plates" (q.v.), and in some cases periodically closes the pits in autumn. 3. Very loosely applied to any hard excrescence upon a plant.

CALMS OR CALM LATITUDES, those parts of the ocean near the equator which are subject to total absence of wind for long periods at a time. See METEOROLOGY, Vol. XVI, pp. 143, 144. CALONNE, ALPHONSE BERNARD DE, VISCOUNT, French writer; born at Béthune, May 17, 1818; engaged in political writing and art criticisms. His politics caused him trouble with the government, and on account of his severe criticisms he was compelled to fight several duels. Since 1870 he has written the reviews and art criticisms for Le Soleil.

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CALOPHYLLUM, a genus of trees of the family Guttiferæ, natives of warm climates. Some of the species yield valuable timber and also supply valuable resins, while the seeds of other varieties produce a fixed oil used in lamps and for other purposes. C. inophyllum of the East Indies is one of the most valuable as well as one of the most beautiful timber trees of its region, its bark also yielding the gum resin known as 'East Indian tacamahac." CALORIMETER. Among recent forms of calorimeter the Junker gas-calorimeter, designed for laboratory work, testing gas-engines, etc., is worthy of mention. Much error has resulted from judging of gas by its candle-power, which may vary materially from its heat-giving qualities. In this instrument the heat generated by a flame is transferred to a current of water flowing at a constant rate, and measurements are taken of the quantity of gas burned, of the quantity of water passed through, and of the increase of temperature of the outgoing water over the incoming water. It is made like an upright boiler, with copper tubes, through which the heated gases rise, while the water runs downward outside the tubes. The spent gases are allowed to escape from a throttle, at atmospheric pressure.

M. Mahler's calorimeter consists of a graduated vessel for holding a specific quantity of water, and of an inverted glass bell, from which the gaseous products of combustion are compelled to flow and pass through the water. There is also a platinum crucible forming the combustion chamber for the fuel to be tested, and a steel bottle of compressed oxygen connected by tubes with the crucible.

The calorimeter of MM. Le Chatelier and Cornu is of the optical pyrometer type, being designed for use in tempering and similar operations. It consists of a telescope to shut off outside light, and an oil-lamp as a standard of comparison, and renders visual test of heat by the color of the flame much more accurate than where ordinary means of observation are used. See HEAT, Vol. XI, pp. 556, 567. C. H. COCHRANE.

CALORIMOTOR, an electrical apparatus so named on account of its heat-producing powers. It consists of a voltaic battery in which the zinc-copper plates are so large as to cause a very slight internal resistance, permitting a large quantity of electrical energy to be produced, and, when short wires are used, a considerable amount of heat. The deflagrator of Hare was the first form.

CALOTTISTS (Le Régiment de la Calotte), a society. of witty and satirical men, in the times of Louis XIV, who were headed by two officers in the king's bodyguard, named Torsac and Aimon. Their name was taken from the cap which formed the symbol of the society. Their amusement consisted in sending to any public character who had made himself ridiculous a "patent" authorizing him to wear the calotte as a covering for the weak part of his head. As the society became audacious, and did not spare even royalty itself, it was suppressed during Fleury's administration.