ifested themselves at this time. Commercially, the demand for artistic wares was still imperfectly met by the liberal use of bands and lines, and the introduction of a few very cheap and commonprinted patterns, mainly for toilet-ware. Until 1883 these conditions continued to prevail; porcelain was produced in quantity by two factories only; plain and cheap-printed wares made up the bulk of the crockery produced; and artistic ornamental pieces of any pretensions to excellence of shape or decoration were produced only by a few enthusiastic experimentalists and at prohibitive prices.

The first and most difficult step in the evolution of American ceramics was the substitution of a lighter and more vitreous body for the heavy earthenwares then being fired. From the ordinary yellow, cream-colored and white granite bodies, a great variety of intermediate consistencies has been developed, ranging all the way up through the semi-porcelains and porcelains to the fairy-like fragility of the Belleek or egg-shell china. Ivory-finish and underglaze print decorations, fashioned more or less upon the Japanese school, were the earliest original forms of artistic pretensions, and they were speedily followed by an increased attention to modeling and the production of shapes differing from the stereotyped forms hitherto almost universal. Heavy, colored and transparent glazes were slowly introduced, blended upon harmoniously tinted bodies. Rich mazarine-blues, relieved with paste and gold decoration in stipple and solid, were among the more handsome of the early achievements of the improving art. Majolica, in shapes which showed considerable originality of design and artistic treatment, was also soon produced. Spurred by a growing public demand for art in even the everyday form of pottery, printed and colored decorations supplemented the earlier lines and bandings, and the decorating-shop, employing girls and women, became part of every pottery. The transference of the design from the copperplate to the wares it was intended to decorate was accomplished by taking upon tissue-paper, with specially prepared ink, an etching from the plate. This, while still wet, was applied to the surface of the biscuit-ware, glaze applied over it in turn, and the whole fired, the transparent glaze protecting the design and rendering it permanent. Where colors were further used, the printed ware after firing went to the decorating-shop, where deft-handed and skillful girls and women filled in with their brushes those portions of the design requiring embellishment, and the ware was again fired in what is technically called the "enamelkiln." The growth of decoration in American pottery is best shown in the fact that where, only a few years prior to 1880, one man could do, and did, the decorating for every pottery in Trenton, which city produces almost one half of the goods made in this country, there are to-day over four hundred decorating-kilns in the potteries of the United States. The economic changes resultant upon the development of American ceramics, as

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seen in the increased production and importance of decorated wares, are more properly discussed under the heading of POTTERY INDUSTRY (q.v., in these Supplements), the manifestations of the dirigent and artistic forces active in shaping ceramic progress being more exclusively within the province of this article. The manufacture of Belleek porcelain, so called after the little Irish town where its manufacture has long been famous, was begun in this country, in Trenton, about 1882. It is the most fragile ware known, and is, hence, often spoken of as egg-shell china, and is noted for its lightness and translucency of body, as well as the pearly lustrousness of its glaze. Originally produced almost exclusively in fancy shell-like designs, American manufacturers have developed it to a distinctive degree in graceful and simple forms having the most artistic decoration. The extreme thinness of this ware prevents its handling by the potter in the plastic clay, and it is made by the casting process, slip or clay mixed with water, of the consistency of cream, being poured into plaster molds, where, a portion of the water being absorbed by the porous mold, a thin coating of the clay or body adheres to the sides, and after being sufficiently dried, can be removed and fired. Besides vases and other ornamental forms, this ware is now made in the most exquisite of cream-jugs, pitchers, cups and saucers, ice-cream holders, etc. In its decoration a new feature has been developed by the carving in relief of exquisite tracings and designs upon the unbaked body. The extreme thinness of this body, which renders the work much like carving brittle egg-shell, imparts, owing to its translucency, a soft moonlight effect to the whole, of indescribable beauty. In the Belleek porcelains, or egg-shell chinas, American manufacturers are to-day producing wares which are fully equal to and sell at as high prices as the best of the imported goods.

Of the other wares distinctively the outcome of the ceramic development of twenty years, and the product of the potteries, exhaustive discussion would require far too great a space. Descending the scale of fineness from Belleek, the porcelains and semi-porcelains run through all the varieties of vitrified, thin, Indian, bone, translucent, and hard chinas used in every kind of useful and ornamental ware, including table-service pitchers, jugs, vases, punch-bowls, candelabra, clock-cases, lamp-bodies, plaques, ornamental figures and fancy designs. In their modeling and decoration has been developed the highest form of the potter's art. The rich iridescence of the nacreous Belleek glaze over the soft-toned body-tints; the true overglaze colors and white enameled porcelain table-service wares; the silver and gold raised paste and relief work in exquisitely modeled traceries, sprays and figures; the deep, rich bodycolorings, of every degree of mellowness and brilliancy; the soft ivory and vellum finishes; the mellow and marble-textured Parian,—all executed with most admirable art and chasteness of color, modeled with a purity of form and graceful sim

liver-fluke (Distomum). It was formerly supposed See TREMATODA, Vol.

to be a distinct animal.

XXIII, p. 536.

CERCIS CANADENIS. Vol. XIII, p. 761.

737

CERIUM, a metal. See CHEMISTRY, Vol. V,

PP. 542, 543.

CERCOCEBUS, a genus to which the long-tailed African monkey known as "mangebeys" belong. The sooty monkey is a good type of the genus. CERCOPITHECUS. See APE, Vol. II, pp.

151, 155.

CERDOCYON, a genus of Canide, apparently intermediate between dogs and foxes, sometimes known as aguara foxes, natives of South America. Their aspect is thoroughly vulpine, as are also their manners. Some of them add to the dispositions of ordinary foxes a singular propensity to steal and secrete brilliant and gaudy objects. Some are natives of the coldest parts of South America, and have a rich fur. CEREALS, in the United States. See AGRICULTURE, in these Supplements. CEREBELLUM.

See ANATOMY, Vol. I, pp. 871, 872; PHYSIOLOGY, Vol. XIX, p. 38. CEREBRATION, UNCONSCIOUS. The doctrine of unconscious cerebration, as stated by Carpenter, Laycock and others, holds that as there can be no doubt that molecular changes in the cerebrum accompany all our conscious mental processes, so similar changes may go on in the cerebrum without any consciousness on our part until the complete mental result is presented. It is based on the every-day experience that after one has been vainly trying to recall some name or incident, it will suddenly flash into the mind when one is thinking of some entirely different subject. According to Carpenter, the cerebrum has gone on working automatically, but unconsciously, until the processes accompanying the mental operation of remembering the name or incident have been completed. This doctrine is the same as that of "latent thought" as expounded by Sir W. Hamilton. See HAMILTON, Vol. XI, p. 417; also PsyCHOLOGY, Vol. XX, pp. 47, 48.

CEREBRIN OR CEREBRIC ACID, an organic acid of very complex composition, found in the liver, blood and nerves, but especially in the brain of animals. It is composed chiefly of carbon, oxygen and hydrogen, with small amounts of nitrogen. It is a white solid of a fatty nature, obtainable in crystalline grains, soluble in boiling alcohol or ether, but insoluble in cold ether. The symbol is C50H120N2O16.

CEREBRO-SPINAL FLUID. See ANATOMY, Vol. I, p. 865.

CEREOPŠIS, a genus of birds to which the New Holland goose belongs. See Goose, Vol. X, p. 778.

CERES, a planetoid. See ASTRONOMY, Vol. II, p. 806.

CEREUS, a plant. See CACTUS, Vol. IV, pp. 625, 626.

CERITHIUM, a genus of gasteropod mollusks with numerous and highly variable species. It is said to have led Lamarck to speculate upon the origin of species.

CERRO DE POTOSI, a mountain rich in ores. See BOLIVIA, Vol. IV, p. 13.

CERRO GORDO, a mountain pass in the Cofre de Perote, southern Mexico, 60 miles W.N.W. of Vera Cruz, on the road to Mexico. Here, on the 18th of April, 1847, General Scott with 9,000 men, following up his success at Vera Cruz, found Santa Anna with 13,000 men awaiting him, and blocking the pass. After various futile attempts to find or make a route, General Scott decided to assault the pass. This he did with remarkable success, utterly routing the enemy, and capturing 3,000 prisoners, 4,000 or 5,000 stand of arms and 43 pieces of artillery. General Scott lost, in killed, 63; wounded, 368. Next day he advanced to Jalapa and occupied it.

CERROS OR CEDROS, an island off the coast of Lower California, lat. 28° 20' N., lon. 115° 20' W., belonging to Mexico. It is rugged and sterile, except at the northern end, where there is some vegetation, and herds of goats are plentiful. ful. The surrounding sea abounds in fish, oysters and lobsters.

CERTHIADE, a family of birds. See TREE CREEPER, Vol. XXIII, p. 534.

CERTIFICATE, in the law of England and of the United States, is a written statement by a person having a public or official status concerning some matter within his knowledge and authority. In the United States the word is commonly applied to any formal statement made by a public servant in the execution of his duty, as by a collector of taxes, a postmaster, etc.

CERTIORARI is a writ issued by a superior court to an inferior court, tribunal or officer exercising judicial powers, requiring such court or tribunal to send up its records in a proceeding pending or already terminated to such superior court. The purpose of a writ of certiorari is to bring the records of the inferior court into the superior court for the purpose of determining whether the former had jurisdiction or had proceeded according to the requirements of law. The granting of such writ is within the discretion of the superior court, but, in most states, within certain limits, prescribed by statute. Certiorari is never granted when an appeal may be prosecuted from the decision complained of. But if an appeal be improperly denied, or the party be deprived of the right of appeal through fraud or accident, a writ of certiorari is frequently granted, and the whole case reviewed, both as to the law and the facts. The writ will lie only for substantial errors, and not for mere irregularities or

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informalities at the trial, nor to review matters which are entirely within the discretion of the trial court. Certiorari is obtained by petition to the superior court, which petition must show a sufficient ground upon its face for granting the writ. The petition is entirely ex parte, and no answer or affidavits can be filed to controvert it, but if the allegations made in the petition be not maintained at the rehearing, or sufficient of them to show that the writ was properly issued, it will be dismissed, without considering the merits of the case. If they are sufficient, the case will be considered upon its merits, and the judgment of the inferior court either sustained or set aside. Certiorari is often made use of as an ancillary process to obtain full return of some writ formerly issued, as in the case of a writ of habeas corpus. It is frequently employed to bring into court the entire record of the case in the court where the proceedings were had committing the party to prison. The writ of certiorari is an important and useful remedy, and its use frequently prevents gross injustice. The right to issue such writs in proper cases has been constantly recognized and maintained by the courts.

up his office in 1873, and the next year was killed by the Spaniards.

CESSIO BONORUM, a Scotch judicial decree. See BANKRUPTCY, Vol. III, p. 344.

See

CESSPOOL. See BUILDING, Vol. IV, p. 468. CESTIUS, PYRAMID OF, a Roman tomb. ROME, Vol. XX, p. 831.

CESTODA. See TAPE-WORMS, Vol. XXIII, pp. 49–56.

CESTUI QUE TRUST is a legal term denoting a person for whose use another holds the title to real or personal property. The party holding the property in trust is called the trustee, and is the legal owner, while the cestui que trust is the beneficial or equitable owner. The cestui que trust, therefore, is entitled to the rents and profits; he may defend the title, if attacked, in the name of the trustee, or he may restrain the trustee from committing waste or using the property in any manner to the disadvantage of the cestui que trust, See TRUSTS, Vol. XXIII, pp. 596, 597.

CESTUS, a girdle worn by Greek and Roman women. The cestus of Venus was decorated with beautiful representations and everything that could awaken love. Cestus, or more correctly

CERUMEN, a wax-like substance secreted by certain glands lying in the external auditory canal, or the passage that leads from the external opening of the ear to the membrane of the tympanum. It acts as a lubricant. It possesses a peculiarly bitter taste, which is supposed to prevent insects from entering the auditory canal. It is popularly known as ear-wax.

CERUSITE OR CERUSSITE, a white lead ore. See MINERALOGY, Vol. XVI, p. 398.

CERVIDÆ. See DEER, Vol. VII, pp. 23-25. CERVIN, MONT, same as the MATTERHORN; q. v., in these Supplements.

CESALPINO. See CÆSALPINUS, Vol. IV, p.

633.

CESNOLA, LUIGI PALMA DI, archæologist; born near Turin, Italy, July 29, 1832. He served in the Sardinian army in 1849, in the Crimean War, and on the Union side in the American Civil War, attaining to the rank of colonel. He was afterward appointed United States consul to Cyprus, where he made extensive collections of antiquities. These became the property of the Metropolitan Museum of Art (New York City) in 1873. On his return from Cyprus, General Cesnola was appointed director of the museum. He has written a work entitled Re

searches and Discoveries in Cyprus. See CYPRUS, Vol. VI, p. 750, note.

CESPEDES Y BORGES, CARLOS MANUEL, Cuban patriot; born in Bayamo, Cuba, April 18, 1819; killed March 22, 1874. He studied and began the practice of law in Spain; was implicated in the Prim conspiracy of 1844, and returned to Cuba. He was exiled in 1852 for several years; in 1868 led the general Cuban insurrection, and in 1869 was made president of the republican organization. He was obliged to give He was obliged to give

glove worn by the Greek and Roman pugilists. It was at first a mere leathern thong or bandage to strengthen the fist; but afterward it was covered with knots and nails, and loaded with lead and iron, to increase the force of the blow.

CETEOSAURUS OR CETIOSAURUS, a genus of large dinosaurian reptiles belonging to the Jurassic system. See GEOLOGY, Vol. X, p. 355.

CETEWAYO OR CETSHWAYO, king of the Zulus, was distinguished by the desperate resistance he made to the English in 1879. On January 22d he surprised and massacred the Twenty-fourth regiment at Isandlwhana and attacked Rorke's Drift. On June 1st, Prince Napoleon, who had joined the British army as a volunteer, was killed by Zulus. Cetewayo was defeated by Lord Chelmsford at Ulundi, and on July 4th was captured and sent to England. He was restored to a part of his dominions in 1882, but in the following year his subjects drove him. He gave himself up to the English, who imprisoned him until his death in 1884. See ZULULAND, Vol. XXIV, p. 829.

out.

CEYLON. (See CEYLON, Vol. V, pp. 359-370.) The official returns give the area as 25,365 square miles; population, 3,008,466. The capital, Colombo, has a population of 120,000. Until recently the chief production for export has been coffee, but now more attention is paid to tea, cinchona, cocoanut and other palms. There are 230 miles of railway in operation. The total public revenue for 1894 was 19,485, 310 rupees, and the total expenditures 20,342,899 rupees. There are 908,309 acres of pasture-land, and under cultivation 2,026,606 acres, of which 670,089 are devoted to rice and other grains; 33,048 to coffee; 303,886 to tea; 776,977 to cocoanut-palms; 39,486 to Palmyra palms; 4,136 to cinchona; 10,700 to tobacco; and 39,580 to cinnamon. The live

stock of the island in 1893 included 4,207 horses, 1,062,776 cattle, 148, 122 goats and 92,362 sheep. Plumbago is a valuable mining product, and in 1893 there were 525 plumbago-mines. In 1891 the product of the pearl-fisheries was valued at 960,000 rupees. Since then the value has been very small. The declared value of the imports during 1894 was 178,113,072 rupees, and of the exports, 79,723,791 rupees. CEZIMBRA, a town in the province of Estremadura, western Portugal, on the Bay of Setubal, about 18 miles S. of Lisbon. It has active fisheries. Population, 3,085.

CHABANEAU, CAMILLE, French philologist; born at Nontron, March 4, 1831; while in the postal department, became interested in the study. of dialects, and attracted such attention by his writings that he was appointed, in 1870, to the position of professor of French language in the middle ages at Montpellier. Among his published writings are a Grammar of the Peasantry; Unpublished Poems of the Troubadours of Périgord;

and Provincialisms.

CHABAS, FRANÇOIS, French Egyptologist; born Jan. 2, 1817, at Briançon; died at Versailles, May 17, 1882. At first engaged in commerce, he found time to become a linguist; but it was not until 1851 that he devoted himself to the study of hieroglyphics. The first results of his studies appeared in 1856, followed by a series of invaluable books and papers on two important periods of ancient Egyptian history-the conquest of the country by the Hyksos, and the time of their expulsion. Among the more important of his many books are Les Pasteurs en Egypte (1868); Histoire de la XIX Dynastie et Spécialement des Temps de l'Exode (1873), and Etudes sur l'Antiquité Historique d'Après les Sources Égyptiennes (2d ed. 1873). From 1873 to 1877 he edited L'Égyptologie.

CHACABUCO, a pass in the Chacabuco spur of the Andes, about 25 miles N. E. of Santiago. It was the scene of a battle in the war of Chile for independence (1817), which resulted in a victory for the insurgents, who ultimately gained their independence from Spain.

CHACHAPOYAS, a city of northern Peru, western South America, on the Utcubamba, 220 miles N. of Lima. It is the see of a bishop, and is well laid out and kept. Elevation, 7,600 feet. Population, 6,000.

CHACO. See GRAN CHACO, Vol. XI, pp. 46, 47. CHACORNAC, JEAN, French astronomer; born in Lyons, June 21, 1823; died at Villeurbane, near Lyons, Sept. 23, 1873. He was chief astronomer at the Paris Observatory, and gained a reputation by his discoveries of asteroids. The atlas of Annals of the Observatory of Paris was entirely

his work.

CHAD OR CEADDA, SAINT, born in Northumbria; became a pupil of St. Aidan at Lindisfarne, and in 666 became bishop of York. Doubt having been cast on the validity of his consecration, he withdrew in 669, but was immediately made bishop of Mercia, fixing the see at Lichfield, where his

739

shrine was placed, and the city is full of memorials of him. He died in 672. He became patron saint of medicinal springs, and his canonical day is March 2d.

CHAD, TCHAD OR TSAD, an African lake, about the center of the Soudan. Its area varies with the seasons, from 10,000 to 50,000 square miles. It is shallow and has a large number of islands; is supplied by a great river called the Shari, which flows in from the south. Until lately it was believed to have no outlet; it overflows to the eastward, fertilizing the great wadai, Bahr-el-Ghazal, where the waters, as they approach the arid land of the Sahara, become evaporated. It swarms with tropical animals.

PAUL ANSEL CHADBOURNE.

CHADBOURNE, PAUL ANSEL, educator; born in North Berwick, Maine, Oct. 21, 1823; died in New York City, Feb. 23, 1883. He graduated at Williams College in 1848, and studied theology. He subsequently engaged in teaching, and was tutor at Williams in 1851. In 1853 he was licensed to preach, and in the same year was called to the chair of chemistry and botany at Williams; and when chosen to a similar chair in Bowdoin, he performed the duties of both positions, and held two professorships in medical schools at the same time. He lectured at several colleges and institutes, and conducted scientific expeditions of Williams students to Newfoundland in 1855, to Florida in 1857, to northern Europe and Iceland in 1859, and to Greenland in 1861. In 1857 he became president of the State Agricultural College of Massachusetts, and from 1867 to 1870 was president of Wisconsin University. In 1872 he was chosen president of Williams College, continuing until 1881. The following year he again became president of the Massachusetts Agricultural College. He was a remarkable business man, took considerable part in politics, and was the author of several works, among which are Natural Theology; Instinct in Man and Animals; and Hope of the Righteous. He edited Public Service of the State of New York.

CHADRON, a city and the capital of Dawes County, northwestern Nebraska, on the Fremont, Elkhorn and Missouri Valley railroad. The government has its land-office for the district-Dawes, Sheridan and Sioux counties-here; it is also the site of Chadron Academy. It was founded in 1885, and now has about 3,000 inhabitants. prosperity is due to commercial activity.

Its

CHADWICK, EDWIN, a social reformer; born at Manchester, England, Jan. 24, 1801; died at East Sheen, near London, July 5, 1890. He studied law and was called to the bar in 1830. He early devoted his attention to questions of social, sanitary and political science, and was, by Lord Grey's govern