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provincial secretary and registrar.

In 1878 Mr. Chapleau was elected leader of the party, and the following year became premier of Quebec and minister of agriculture and public works. He was invited to enter the Dominion cabinet, but for political reasons did not do so until the invitation was renewed in 1882, when he became member of the Privy Council and Secretary of State of Canada. The following month, August, he was elected to the House of Commons by his county; in June, 1891, again became Secretary of State of the Dominion, which office he held until 1892; and in January, 1892, Minister of Public Works. In December of 1892 he became lieutenant-governor for the province of Quebec. CHAPLET, a garland or head-band of leaves and flowers. See also ROSARY, Vol. XX, p. 848. CHAPLIN, CHARLES JOSHUA, portrait-painter; born in Les Andelys, France, June 6, 1825; died in Paris, Jan. 30, 1891. His father was English, his mother French. He studied at the École des Beaux-Arts and under Drölling; became a chevalier of the Legion of Honor in 1877. Among his portraits are Soap Bubbles; A Bather; and Girls Kneeling at a Shrine.

CHAPLIN, HENRY, an English statesman, the farmers' member of the British Parliament, was born in 1841 and educated at Harrow School and Christ Church, Oxford University. From November, 1868, to November, 1885, he represented Mid-Lincolnshire in the House of Commons, since which date he sat for the northern division of the Parts of Kesteven or Sleaford, in the same county. The tenant farmer of England was always the object of his legislative solicitude. He was prominent in the councils of the Conservative party, a frequent and incisive debater and an authority on all matters agricultural. His politics were of the old Tory stripe and his adherence to his party procured him several important offices. In June, 1885, he was appointed Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster, and in 1889, on the formation of the Board of Agriculture, Mr. Chaplin was appointed its first president, with a seat in the Cabinet. In 1885 he was sworn of the Privy Council. In 1876 Mr. Chaplin married Lady Florence LevesonGower, daughter of the third Duke of Sutherland. She died in 1881.

CHAPLIN, WINFIELD SCOTT, an American civil engineer and educator; born in Glenburn, Maine, Aug. 22, 1847; was graduated at West Point in 1870; spent two years in the army, and devoted two years to civil-engineering. In 1874 he was appointed professor of mechanics at Maine State College; in 1877 in the Imperial University of Tokyo, Japan, as professor of civil engineering; first in Union College, New York, and then in Harvard College as professor of civil-engineering. In 1891 he became chancellor of Washington University, St. Louis, Missouri.

CHAPMAN, ALVAN WENTWORTH, an Ameriean botanist; born Sept. 28, 1809, in Southampton, Massachusetts; was graduated at Amherst in 1830; practiced medicine until 1846. He was collector of revenue for Florida in 1865-66, and of customs

from 1866 to 1869. During the greater part of his life he has paid attention to the study of botany. The genus Chapmannia is named for him. He has published Flora of the Southern United States. CHAPMAN, ELIZABETH RACHEL, MISS, a British novelist and poetess, was born in Woodford, Essex. Her writings treat chiefly of those social movements that have for their object the improvement of the condition of woman.. Her published works include The New Godiva; A Comtist Lover; A Little Child's Wreath: and A Sonnet Sequence.

CHAPMAN, JOHN GADSBY, an American painter; born in 1808 at Alexandria, Virginia; studied in Italy; a founder of the Century Club, New York; went to Italy again in 1848, and resided in Rome until his death, Nov. 28, 1889. The work by which he is best known is The Baptism of Pocahontas, now in the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington. Others of his paintings are Sunset on the Campagna; Last Arrow; and Valley of Mexico. His etchings are highly valued. Among them are The Gleaner; A View in the Vicinity of Rome; and A Monk Asking Alms.

CHAPPAQUA, a small village of Westchester County, southeastern New York, on the Harlem railroad, where Horace Greeley had his summer home. Here is a good boarding-school under the control of the Society of Friends. Population, 733.

CHAPPELL, WILLIAM, an English music publisher, was born Nov. 20, 1809; died in London, Aug. 20, 1888. His first work of importance was A Collection of National English Airs (2 vols., 1838-40). 1838-40). This work ultimately grew into the greater and entirely rewritten work, Popular Music of the Olden Time (2 vols., 1855-59). The first volume forms a complete collection of English airs, so far as known, down to the reign of Charles I; the second is rather a selection, containing, however, all the more interesting or important airs of later date. He took a principal part in the foundation, in 1840, of the Musical Antiquarian Society, and the Percy Society, and edited some of Dowland's songs for the former, and several rare collections for the latter. He published papers in the Archæologia, contributed valuable notes to a reprint of the Percy Folio MS. (1867-68), and annotated the first three volumes of the Ballad Society edition of The Roxburghe Ballads. He published, in 1874, the first volume of a History of Music. See MUSIC, Vol. XVII, p. 77, note.

CHAPRA, a town of Bengal. See CHUPRA, Vol. V, p. 758.

CHAPTER. See CATHEDRAL, Vol. V, p. 228; and CONge d'Elire, Vol. VI, p. 265.

CHAPTER-HOUSE. See ARCHITECTURE, Vol. II, p. 462.

CHAPULTEPEC, a rock two miles S. W. of the City of Mexico, rising to a height of 150 feet, and crowned by a castle which was erected by the Spanish viceroy in 1785, on the site of the palace of Montezuma. Here was fought the decisive

battle of the Mexican War. This rock and castle formed a stronghold, the possession of which was

essential to the capture of the City of Mexico. General Scott decided to carry it by direct assault. 'He engaged the attention of the Mexicans at the south end of the city by a heavy fire from the batteries. This fire was kept up for two days, and on the third (Sept. 13, 1847), under the cover of the guns, two storming columns of picked men assaulted the castle and captured it. The American loss in killed and wounded during the two days' battle was less than 900. The fall of Chapultepec obliged the Mexicans to give up the war. The President of the republic now occupies the castle as a summer residence, while adjoining it is the West Point of Mexico, the Mexican Military School.

CHARACEÆ, a group of green Algae of complex structure. They grow in dense masses at the bottom of fresh and brackish water, and being often incrusted with lime, and hence rough and brittle, are sometimes called "brittle-worts or "stoneworts." The plants are from a few inches to more than a foot long, the stem having long internodes (each internode in Nitella being one cylindrical cell, in Chara being a similar cell surrounded by a layer of smaller ones), the leaves and branches appearing in whorls at the nodes, and the conspicuous sex-organs (antheridia and oögonia) borne on the leaves. The circulating movement of protoplasm is easily seen in the internodal cells.

CHARADRIIDÆ, a family of birds comprising the plovers and similar forms. The representatives of the family are cosmopolitan in distribution. See CURLEW, Vol. VI, p. 711.

CHARAES OR XARAYES, a district of inundations. See BRAZIL, Vol. IV, p. 222.

CHARCOT, JEAN MARTIN, French physician; born in Paris, Nov. 25, 1825; died in the Morvan, central France, Aug. 18, 1893. He obtained his diploma as M.D. in 1853; was called to a place on the staff of the Salpétrière in 1862, from which time he continually devoted his attention to the study of the nervous system, and came into international prominence through his experiments in hypnotism and mental suggestion. Besides his principal works on various forms of disease, his Leçons Cliniques sur les Maladies du Système Nerveux, and his Leçons du Mardi à la Salpêtrière, he founded, in 1880, and edited the Archives de Neurologie, and took a leading part in the direction of the Revue de Médecine, Archives de Pathologie Expérimentale, and the Nouvelle Iconographic de la Salpêtrière. He was a member of the Institute of France, of the Royal Irish Academy, of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society of London, and of a great number of other scientific societies in various countries.

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lieutenant in the Royal Engineers, July 15, 1868. After service at home, in Bermuda and Malta, he was ordered to Zululand with his company on the outbreak of the Zulu war. Here, on the disaster of Isandlwhana, he held the near-by commissariat post at Rorke's Drift with eighty men, many of them wounded, against an impi of 3,000 of the flower of the Zulu military system. Six times the little band of English soldiers drove the savages out of the barricade around the hospital at the point of the bayonet, killing 351 and wounding over 1,000. The heroic defense saved the towns of Helpmakaar and Grey Town from the horrors of a Zulu raid, and its incidents formed the subject for a noted picture by Lady Butler. Lieutenants Chard and Bromhead were decorated with the Victoria Cross for their valor. The former was promoted to the rank of captain in 1879, major in 1886 and lieutenant-colonel in 1893.

CHARDON, a village and the capital of Geauga County, northeastern Ohio, 37 miles N. N. E. of Akron, on the Pittsburg and Western railroad. It has considerable trade in dairy and farm products. Population 1890, 1,084. CHARES, an Athenian general. See TIMOTHEUS, Vol. XXIII, p. 398. CHARES OF RHODES, sculptor. See COLOSSUS, Vol. VI, p. 166. CHARGE. See HERALDRY, Vol. XI, pp. 698, 704.

CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES, a diplomatic agent, accredited, not to the sovereign, but to the department for foreign affairs; he also holds his credentials only from the minister. The term is also applied to a representative at an inferior

court.

CHARITABLE USES. See TRUST, Vol. XXIII, pp. 597, 598.

CHARITES, Greek myths. See GRACES, Vol. XI, p. 26.

CHARITON, a river which rises in Clarke County, central southern Iowa, flows east, past the city of Chariton, then southeast, enters Missouri, and with many windings finds its way southward to the Missouri River, two miles above Glasgow. The country through which it passes is fertile and undulating. Its length is about 250 miles.

CHARITON, capital of Lucas County, central southern Iowa on the Chariton River, and on the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad, 50 miles S. of Des Moines. It is in an agricultural district. Population 1890, 3, 122.

*CHARITY ORGANIZATION, a term that has come into general use to denote a recent movement for bringing the relief agencies of large communities into administrative co-operation. Particular associations bear different names, as associated charities, united charities, bureau of charities, etc.; but the phrase charity organization is a popular abbreviation of the title of the parent society in London. This association was instituted in 1869 under the cumbrous style of the "London Society for Organizing Charitable Relief and Repressing Mendicity. It is a general characteristic of this movement that it *Copyright, 1897, by The Werner Company.

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did not proceed from various relief societies uniting to form boards or councils of their own delegates, but from an independent movement to provide a distinct agency to which these societies might adhere voluntarily, and through which they might act in concert. Hence arises a distinct character for those associations that adopt pure charity organization principles. They do not aim to create funds for distribution amongst the necessitous, but rather to promote an economic and salutary distribution of the funds provided by the entire benevolence of a community for the relief of want. In some instances charity organization societies have taken up the work of dispensing funds directly to applicants for aid. In this case, the proceeding has grown out of the neglect or failure of relief societies to co-operate; but it is a deviation from the original scheme and basal principles of charity organization.

For two generations before the London society was established, thoughtful men had come to deplore the mischiefs wrought by an indiscriminate almsgiving. They discovered that alms created the very conditions they were supposed to cure; that benefits to be obtained for nothing produced a crop of applicants greedy to obtain an unearned share of the provision made for the poor. As Chalmers stated the problem, to those who were in want the accumulation of the many gifts of the benevolent into a few treasuries intended for their succor seemed a munificent provision. The poor did not consider the numbers among whom the money was to be divided, but only the total, and this seemed to them inexhaustible. These sums were disbursed, not by the donors, but by officials who became professional in their dealings with the multitude, and who were only almoners of others to whom the beneficiaries of these funds owed neither gratitude nor respect. To the poor, each such almoner was a Cerberus guarding the gates of plenty. Under such an administration, the destitute, who were too often so rather from defects of character than from real misfortune, acquired arts of beggary with dissimulation, and that is the spirit of pauperism. They became shameless, mendacious, brazen. Not only this, but they told others of the relief to be had, and of the arts by which it was to be obtained. No system could well be devised for corrupting the weak and penniless, and for extending pauperism. It was immaterial It was immaterial whether the funds to be given away were raised by taxes and dispensed by the parish, or were consolidated into the foundations of hospitals and asylums, or were dispensed by voluntary societies, or came from the free hand of personal generosity. The material defects of the whole scheme were these: Gifts of money were treated by the community as a panacea for all the ills of poverty, whereas what the poor sorely needed was the help of brave, spirited, well-disposed and potent friendship; in other words, society substituted cash for sympathy, a stone for bread; again, the temptation of ample treasuries to be tapped by begging was spread in the face of misfortune,

teaching them to rely upon artificial and irregular means of support, rather than upon the employment of their own faculties as a means of subsistence. Investigation showed that children. abandoned aged parents, and husbands wives, and parents children, in proportion as hospitals and asylums were founded; that applications for relief grew as the tax rate increased; that want was always exceeding the provision made for it by the benevolent.

The humanity of men forbade the suppression of pecuniary relief, but it was clearly desirable that such relief should be administered in the most prudent and efficacious way, so that misfortune might be succored with the least corruption of the poor. The problem had been attacked many times and in many places with success. Chalmers had solved it in Glasgow, and Von der Heydt at Elberfeld, in Prussia. The operations of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul and the work of Octavia Hill in East London had shown that much could be done for the necessitous by other means than alms. Experience also had been gained in the especial relief of the Lancashire mill-operatives during the cotton famine in England caused by the American Civil War. An undoubted impulse to the organization of the London society was found in the mission of Edward Dennison to Stepney, East London, in 1868, where he resided eight months, visiting and studying the conditions of wretchedness there. He wrote: "I am beginning seriously to believe that all bodily aid to the poor is a mistake; whereas, by giving alms you keep them permanently crooked. Build schoolhouses, pay teachers, give prizes, frame workman's clubs, help them to help themselves, lend them your brains; but give them no money except what you sink in such undertakings." His high personal and social standing influenced his friends, and they joined together in 1869 to form the society named.

It was impossible to bring the vast number of various organizations of the metropolis, parish relief, asylums, workhouses, voluntary societies, to organize themselves into a unity. In many cases they did not see the need of better methods; in others they were unwilling to have their administration criticised; altogether they were too multitudinous, unwieldy and inert to construct for themselves measures of practical co-operation. To draw them into unity the London society proposed a bureau where each of these independent agencies might register every case of its own relief, where their thousands of reports could be consolidated, and whence each might learn the result of these collated records. By such a registration bureau the whole field of London misery might be disclosed and the various societies made auxiliary to each other. The London society further proposed to send out friendly visitors, who should not give relief, but should befriend with their brains and counsels those who applied for aid, and whose reports upon each case should be available to all sorts of relief officials and

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The society organized district committees, one for each poor-law union in London. These com-' mittees consisted of clergymen, guardians of the poor and representatives of local charities. The district committees by delegates constituted a council, of which there were some few ex officio members. The functions of the council were to give unity of principle and method to the district committees; to aid them in every way, as by suggestion, by repression of imposture, through the agency of the law when necessary, and by seeking systematic co-operation from London's municipal and voluntary agencies of relief. The district committees were to aim at the prevention of overlapping aid, were to investigate all cases of need made known to them; were to obtain, if possible, from existing provisions, suitable and adequate succor for the deserving; were to place their knowledge of particular needs at the service of charitable agencies and private persons; were to promote social and sanitary reforms and habits of thrift; and were to advise the public concerning matters they thought desirable to accomplish, and for which suitable provision was not made. In substance, this plan has been followed wherever charity organization principles have been adopted in the United States.

The first movement of this nature known in the United States is to be credited to Boston, where the city, in combination with private citizens, erected an edifice, known as the Charity Building, in Chardon Street, to be the official home of municipal and private relief organizations. Here a certain amount of co-operation was obtained, and the way prepared for the fuller development of a wise and efficient system. This building was erected in 1869 and was contemporary with the formation of the London society. The first conscious adoption of the methods of the English society took place in Germantown, a suburb of Philadelphia, in 1873. This was a rural suburb and a distinct ward, characterized by considerable unanimity of social sentiment and local pride, having wealth and intelligence as well as poverty. The success of the Germantown association attracted attention, and began to be widely quoted throughout the city and elsewhere. In 1878 an English clergyman, who had been an active official of the London society, came to Buffalo and established a charity organization society there, which, from the outset, obtained the co-operation of the executive government. Results were immediately seen in the improved administration of the civic charities, and the movement was warmly supported by a body of intelligent and patriotic In the same year, a new movement in Philadelphia, in which Germantown was merged, resulted in the establishment of a large and highly successful society there, with branches spread throughout the wards of the city. From these points the organizations spread year by year to the principal cities of the Union, until in 1895 there were 132 such associations, extending from

citizens.

fornia. Some of them were old relief societies that adopted charity organization principles and came into accord with the general movement; the most of them were new foundations, offering their services to the communities in which they were located. These communities embrace a population of nearly fourteen million souls.

Charity organization societies are in correspondence with each other, as well in America as throughout the British Empire. By this means they are able to follow a case from Australia to Puget Sound, sometimes returning a destitute person to family friends, sometimes recovering a pension, and sometimes putting a stop to depredations upon benevolent society throughout the English-speaking world.

In theory, a charity organization 'society proposes to do everything requisite for the permanent relief of destitution and the reformation of character that ingenuity can devise, and to find the means therefor, if possible, in the provisions for succor that each community has already founded. It aims to establish everywhere a corps of visitors who shall attach themselves to families and to individuals, with a view to acquiring a complete understanding of the nature of their wants and of suitable proceedings to restore them to independence. This visitation work is largely, and most appropriately, the function of women. Where mendicity is encountered, it is resisted. Efforts are made to suppress corrupting relief by invoking labor-tests, such as woodyards and wayfarers' lodges. Labor-tests consist in the requirement of a certain amount of coarse but simple work in return for food and lodging. Those who endure the test are retained long enough for them to find employment; those who refuse it are treated as vagrants.

Various devices have been found, such as savings funds, small loans for the purchase of tools, work rooms for unskilled women, laundries, crèches for the care of children, while the mothers are at work, employment bureaus, etc., to place needy persons in conditions of temporary selfmaintenance, etc., until a better way of self-support may be found. Provision is also made to secure suitable sanitary conditions in tenements, and to afford children and young mothers outdoor excursions, or a short sojourn in country homes.

It is also a principle of charity organizations to bring into concert of administration to the utmost extent, not only the large charitable and penal institutions of municipal departments of charity and correction, but churches, voluntary societies and beneficent individuals. Such co-operation is hard to obtain, on account of the vast extent of the field and the sluggishness arising from the established traditions and persistent habits of a community. Considering the inertia to be overcome, this branch of work has made reasonable progress, and the ground once covered is seldom wrested away.

Recently a new phase of the work has sprung up,

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full of promise, both for the working out of charity organization doctrines as a part of sociological science, and in disseminating higher intelligence in the work. It consists of an alliance made between universities and the larger of these societies, as in Boston, New York and Chicago, where the universities of Harvard, Columbia and Chicago, have established seminaries to which the organization societies are auxiliaries. The young students enter the service of these societies under the direction of their preceptors, to study the operations of economic laws in the pauper world. The effect is reciprocal, for the societies profit by the intelligent study and criticism of their university associates, while these associates test their judgments in the wide field of practice.

Charity organization forms a section of the National Conferences of Charities and Correction which meets yearly at some previously designated city, and here goes on a valuable exchange of views, founded upon actual records of work done and the disclosure of methods employed in various parts of the country.

The influence of this movement has been very wide-perhaps wider and more potent in its influence on the legislation of many states, on the administration of municipal charities, and in stimulating new enterprises, such as university settlements, kindergartens, trade schools, etc., than in the results of direct contact with the destitute. Still, these latter results are by no means small, and have introduced a new criterion of humane succor. It is more and more widely seen that the type of true benevolence is not in the magnitude of things given away, but in the recovery of souls from personal depression and degradation.

Charity organization is simply a distinct recognition of the facts that real misfortune, as a rule, is but temporary; that a sound society rests more upon character than circumstances; and that the only effectual method of eradicating social evils is moral-that is, that the strong and the healthful and the wise shall make their poorer brethren participators in these qualities.

Literature. The proceedings of the National Conference of Charities and Correction, published annually, contain an account of the Charity Organization Section sessions and the papers read there. The leading periodicals devoted to this work are monthlies, and, in the order of their founding, are The Monthly Register (Philadelphia) Lend a Hand (Boston) and The Charities Review (New York). The larger societies keep on hand a list of small treatises of practical character concerning various phases of charity organization, and their reports contain much general information. The two most compact histories of the movement in America are by S. H. Gurteen and Charles D. Kellogg. D. O. KELLOGG. CHARITY, SISTERS OF, one of the sisterhoods of the Roman Catholic Church. The members of this order are sometimes called "Gray Sisters," "Daughters of Charity" and "Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul." The order or congregation was founded by St. Vincent de Paul at Paris in 1634. Its first object was to be the nursing of patients in hospitals. There have since been added to the duties of the members, the taking charge

of orphanages, and in some places the management of poor-schools. They are under the direction of the Lazarists. Their vows are simple and are renewed each year. The order, at first confined to France, is now spread all over the world, and numbers between 30,000 and 40,000. There are also, in addition to the order just described, the Sisters of Charity in Ireland and the Sisters of Charity of St. Paul. The former was founded in Dublin, Ireland, in 1815, by Mary Frances Aikenhead. The order is similar in its objects to the main society. The vows, however, are perpetual. In 1891 this order had 22 convents in Ireland and one in England. The central power is in the mother superior, who has jurisdiction over the whole. The Sisters of Charity of St. Paul was founded by Chauvet, a French curé, in 1704. This order is devoted almost entirely to giving instruction to the children of the poor. It was introduced into England in 1847.

CHARIVARI, a serenade of discordant music, used originally to annoy widows who married the second time, but also, on other occasions, when the performers desired to annoy or insult any one. In some districts of the United States, this rough kind of serenade is common at any marriage, and is generally rather a token of good feeling than of any desire to insult either bride or groom. As synonomous with ridicule, the name has been taken for several comic journals, the Paris Charivari, etc. See CARICATURE, Vol. V, p. 105.

CHARLES I (CHARLES EITEL FREDERICK ZEPHYRIN LOUIS), king of Roumania, was born April 20, 1839, being the second son of Prince Charles Antoine of Hohenzollern - Sigmaringen, head of the house of the same name. He became Prince of Roumania in April, 1866, and in 1881 king. He married Pauline. Elizabeth Ottilie Louise, daughter of Prince Hermann of Wied, in 1869, who has achieved considerable reputation as the authoress of several novels and some verse under the nom de plume of "Carmen Sylva." See ELIZABETH OF ROUMANIA, in these Supplements.

CHARLES I.

CHARLES I, an eccentric king of Würtemberg; born March 6, 1823; succeeded his father, William I, on June 25, 1864. He married, July 13, 1846, the Grand Duchess Olga, daughter of Nicholas I, czar of Russia. Originally an opponent of the unification of Germany, at any rate to the extent of Prussian pre-eminence, he conceded to the inevitable, and supported his fellowGermans with an army corps in the sharp and decisive struggle with France in 1870. Though trained to militarism, his bent was toward art and literature. Stuttgart benefited architecturally, musically and scientifically by his reign, the last ten years of which were rendered ludicrous by