terra-cotta.

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The trade and commerce of the city is extensive, the value of the wholesale business for 1895 aggregating $504,675,000. The leading lines were dry goods and carpets; groceries; boots and shoes; lumber; clothing; manufactured iron; jewelry, watches and diamonds; books, stationery and wall-paper; $178,913,809 worth of flour and grain were received in 1895, and $162,602,137 worth shipped. The total value of produce received during the year was close to $400,000,000. See also CHICAGO, Vol. V, pp. 610-613.

CHICKADEE, a name popularly applied to the black-capped titmouse (Parus montanus or atricapillus) and related birds. They remain in the Northern United States during all the year, and in winter are often called "snow-birds."

CHICKAHOMINY, a river in eastern Virginia, which rises some 20 miles N.W. of Richmond; flows in a southeasterly direction for some 75 miles and then empties into the James River. The banks of the Chickahominy were the scene of several conflicts in McClellan's campaign against Richmond in May and June, 1862. In its swamps and morasses, or in proximity to them, occurred the battles of Seven Pines and Fair Oaks, May 31-June 1, 1862; Mechanicsville, June 26; Savage's Station, June 29; White Oak Swamp, June 30, 1862; and Cold Harbor, June 3, 1864. In the seven days' fight at the end of June, the Confederate loss was double that of the Northern army, and if McClellan had but followed up his advantage he could have taken Richmond and ended the war.

CHICKAMAUGA CREEK, a tributary of the Tennessee River, rising in Walker County, Georgia, which, after flowing northeastward and northward, enters the Tennessee River about six miles above Chattanooga. Here, on September 19-21, 1863, was fought the BATTLE OF CHICKAMAUGA (q.v.).

CHICKAMAUGA, BATTLE OF. The city of Chattanooga, Tennessee was, in 1863, the bone of contention between the Northern and Southern armies. The town was the key to the fertile country to the south, and its railroad connections made it invaluable to either side. After the battle of Stone Riverwon by Thomas and Miller-Rosecrans had remained for months inactive, until at last, in response to pressure from Washington, he began his preparations for a southern movement. His army was divided into three corps-those of Thomas, Crittenden and McCook. At the outset the heavy rains and consequent rise in the rivers intersecting the country over which the Federal army moved, necessarily rendered Rosecrans's movements somewhat slow. The army under his immediate command numbered about sixty thousand, while Burnside, who was supporting the army of the Cumberland by concurrent movements, was in command of twenty thousand more. Το To oppose these two bodies of men, Bragg had fifty

Rosecrans moved down the river and crossed on pontoons and a bridge which had been repaired, hoping thus to turn the Confederate left and gain the rear. Meantime the Federal left, under Crittenden, was ordered to make a direct attack on Chattanooga, while Thomas was to march upon Lafayette, and McCook was to threaten the Confederate communications with the south. On the 21st of August, Crittenden was before Chattanooga and began a bombardment, and by the 1st of September the entire Union army was in the positions designated by Rosecrans. Bragg was not slow to take advantage of the fact that in the execution of these movements Rosecrans had separated his army and interposed between them difficult mountain country. In order to take advantage of this fact, Bragg ordered Hill to march upon Lafayette, at the same time evacuating Chattanooga-intending to crush Rosecrans's left center before he could concentrate his forces. Rosecrans seemed wholly unaware of the intention of Bragg, believing him to be in retreat, instead of contemplating an attack on the weakened Union center and left. Bragg made all the preparation possible for the success of his plans, and there is no doubt that had he received the co-operation of his subordinates, he would have succeeded. As it was, his success was too near fruition to give the Union army anything but a disputed tactical victory. The delay caused by lack of co-operation gave Thomas and McCook opportunity to effect a junction. of their forces-not a moment too soon. Crittenden had encountered the Confederates at Ringgold, and had retreated across the Chickamauga; and on the 18th of September the entire Union army was placed in position on the right bank of the Chickamauga. On the night of the same day the army moved north by the flank, Thomas being in front and McCook to his right, the two commands overlapping. Crittenden was in the rear of the center, Gordon Granger's command being held in reserve at Rossville, while the other reserves were scattered about in positions near Chattanooga. The Confederate forces lay on the other bank of the Chickamauga River that night. It had now become clear that the intention of Bragg was to attack the Union center, turn its left, and cut Rosecrans off from Chattanooga. Polk, with two divisions, held the Confederate right, while Hood occupied the left. occupied the left. The battle was begun by Bragg

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throwing thirty thousand men across the Chickamauga and projecting and concentrating division after division on Thomas's front. At first Thomas's advance wavered and retreated, but on the reserve coming up, the Confederates were in turn driven back. The attack was renewed by the Confederates, and Thomas was again forced back. At this juncture General Hazen, by a well-directed artillery fire, forced the Confederates to retire. Another attack Another attack of less strength than the preceding was made, when night put an end to the conflict. During the darkness new disposition was made of both forces, and on the next morning (20th) at ten o'clock the entire Confederate right was thrown against Thomas, who now occupied the extreme left of the Union army. Reinforcements were hurried up to him, and in closing up from the right center a gap was left in the Federal front. Into this gap Longstreet poured his men, sending the right and center flying in the utmost confusion from the field, leaving Thomas on the left to his fate; which then seemed to be certain defeat. Rosecrans and his staff were swept from the field by the uncontrollable rout, and Thomas was left in command. Far to the rear, at the intersection of two roads, one leading to Chattanooga and the other to Thomas's position, Rosecrans halted long enough to send back his chief of staff, Gen. J. A. Garfield, to ascertain the import of the heavy firing still heard from Thomas's command, and then continued his flight to Chattanooga, to prepare for the holding of that town at all events. Meantime, Thomas, termed thenceforth "the Rock of Chickamauga," was receiving a terrific hammering, Polk assaulting his right and Longstreet his left. He was slowly forced back, and at. one time having a gap left in his line, Longstreet rushed in, and for a time disaster and defeat seemed to be the inevitable result for the Union army, but Granger hurried up his reserves and strengthened the weak place, thus averting the impending danger. Nightfall put an end to the second day's fight, and Thomas fell back slowly and in good order, capturing five hundred prisoners as he retired. It is yet an unexplained circumstance why Bragg did not continue the fight during the night of the 20th, when Thomas was exhausted and had resisted to the last extreme of his tenacity, and had not one more effort in reserve. The night was one on which the full moon shone unobscured by a cloud, and the battle could have been continued to the irreparable damage of the Union army. This was not done, and the next morning found Thomas in a new position, from which he offered battle to Bragg, the offer being declined. On the evening of this day Thomas rejoined the army at Chattanooga.

The battle of Chickamauga was undoubtedly a tactical victory for the Confederates, but this victory had been dearly bought. Bragg stated his losses as two fifths of his entire force. But of far greater importance to the Confederacy was the loss of Chattanooga, to which the Federal army had retired, and which they now proceeded to fortify. The Federal losses were in the neighborhood of seventeen thousand men, and arms in proportion, but Chattanooga was worth the price, and this seemingly dispropor

tionate loss of life was undoubtedly compensated by the fact that the possession of this stronghold practically decided the war in the far South. On the 16th of the following month General Rosecrans was relieved of his command. The subsequent battle of Chattanooga is described in these Supplements, under its appropriate heading. In 1896 the Federal government, having purchased the site of the battle-fields, opened a handsome national park. See NATIONAL PARKS, in these Supplements.

CHICKAREE, a popular name of the red or Hudson Bay squirrel (Sciurus hudsonius), which inhabits British America and the northern part of the United States. See AMER

CHICKEN OR CHICKEN-ITZA. ICA, Vol. I, p. 694; Yucatan, Vol. XXIV, p. 759. CHICKEN-POX, a contagious febrile disease, chiefly of children, and bearing some resemblance to a very mild character of smallpox. Chicken-pox is distinguished by an eruption of vesicles or blebs, which rarely become pustular or yellow, and leave only a very slight incrustation, which falls off in a few days, leaving little or none of the marking or pitting which is such a prominent feature in smallpox. From its vesicular character it has been called the crystal pock. It has been argued that chickenpox is in fact only smallpox modified by previous vaccination; but this opinion, though maintained on good authority, is not accepted by most medical men. It is a disease of little or no danger, the fever being often hardly perceptible and never lasting long.

CHICKERING, JONAS, an American piano manufacturer; born in New Ipswich, New Hampshire, April 5, 1797; died in Boston, Massachusetts, Dec. 6, 1853. His father was a blacksmith. Young Chickering received a common-school education and was apprenticed to a cabinet-maker. In 1818 he went to Boston, became employed with a pianoforte maker, and in 1823 set up for himself, in a small way, as a manufacturer of pianos. This business, in course of time, became greatly extended, until he furnished annually about 2,000 instruments. In 1852 his factory was burned, and before the new one had been completed Mr. Chickering died. He made many valuable improvements and for many years kept the lead of all other makers in this country and in Europe. He was noted for his business enterprise, public spirit and benevolence. After his death the business passed into the hands of his three sons; the eldest, Thomas Edward (born in Boston, Oct. 22, 1824; died there, Feb. 14, 1871), succeeded his father as head of the firm, and distinguished himself in the Civil War. Charles Frank, second son (born in Boston, Jan. 20, 1827; died in New York City, March 23, 1891), after receiving his education, entered his father's factory. He represented his father at the World's Fair in London in 1851, and made many improvements in the manufacture of pianos.

CHICK-PEA, a leguminous plant. See GRAM, Vol. XI, p. 36.

CHICKWEED (Stellaria media), one of the most common weeds of gardens and cultivated fields. It is a native of most parts of Europe and of Asia, appear

ing during the colder months even on the plains of | India; an annual, with a weak procumbent stem and ovate leaves, very variable; some of the smaller varieties in dry, sunny situations, sometimes puzzling young botanists from having no petals or only five or three instead of ten stamens, but always characterized by having the stem curiously marked with a line of hairs, which at each pair of leaves changes from one side to another, and in four changes completes the circuit of the stem. The leaves of chickweed afford a fine instance of the sleep of plants, closing up on the young shoots at night. Chickweed is a good substitute for spinach or greens, although generally little regarded except as a troublesome weed, or gathered only by the poor to make poultices, for which it is very useful, or for feeding cage-birds, which are very fond of its leaves and seeds. A number of species of a nearly allied genus, Cerastium, also bear the name of chickweed, or mouse-ear chickweed, and the name is occasionally given to other plants, either botanically allied, or of somewhat similar appearance.

CHICLAYO, a town of northwestern Peru, 12 miles S.E. of Lambayeque; it is the center of a valuable sugar district. Population, 11,325.

CHICO, a town and the former capital of Butte County, central northern California, situated on Chico Creek, 95 miles N. of Sacramento, on the Southern Pacific railroads. It is the trade-center of a fertile district, and an important shipping-point for lumber. It is the seat of an academy, and contains a variety of manufactories. Population 1890, 2,894.

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attends at least one term of the circuit court in each two years.

CHIEM-SEE, a lake of southeastern Bavaria, the largest in the country. It lies about 42 miles S.E. of Munich. It is 12 miles in length and 9 miles in breadth, and is situated at an elevation of more than fifteen hundred feet above the sea.

CHIFF-CHAFF. See WREN, Vol. XXIV, p. 688. CHIGNECTO BAY, an inlet at the head of the Bay of Fundy, in British North America. It separates Nova Scotia from New Brunswick, is thirty miles long and eight broad, and has an isthmus only fourteen miles in width between it and Northumberland Strait, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. An extraordinary ship-railway, designed to transport laden vessels, has been partially completed across this isthmus. It is quite straight, laid with two pairs of 110-pound steel rails, 16 feet apart, and designed for vessels up to 2,000 tons. It is said that $4,000,ooo have been spent, and $1,500,000 more will be required to complete it, but it is now tied up, awaiting the necessary funds.

CHIGOE OR JIGGER. See FLEA, Vol. IX, p. 301.

CHIH-LI OR PECHIHLI, Province of. See CHINA, Vol. V, p. 633.

CHIHUAHUA, the largest state of Mexico, bounded on the north and northeast by New Mexico and Texas; has an area of 83,746 square miles, and a population of about 226,000. In the east is the Bolson de Mapima, a vast desert of sand and alkali plains; in the south and west the surface is mountainous, and there are numerous rivers. The

savings banks. Population 1890, 14,007; 1895, 16,420. See also CHICOPEE, Vol. V, p. 614.

CHICOUTIMI, a village of Chicoutimi County, northern Quebec, on the Saguenay River, about 75 miles W. of its mouth, and on the Quebec and Lake St. John railroad. There is here a convent of the Good Shepherd. Large quantities of lumber are shipped direct from here to Great Britain. Population 1891, 2,277.

CHIEF JUSTICE, the principal judge of the United States or a state supreme court, corresponding in rank and dignity with the English Lord Chief Justice (q.v., under JUSTICE, Vol. XIII, p. 789). The chief justice of the supreme court of a state in the Union has, as a rule, few functions other than to preside over the sittings of the supreme court of his The chief justice of the United States supreme court ranks next to the President in official dignity. He receives a salary of $10,500; presides over the sessions of the supreme court; administers the oath to the President and Vice-President at their inauguration; presides over the Senate when the President is tried on articles of impeachment, and

state.

agriculture; the fertile districts are mainly confined to the valleys and river-courses. Cotton is grown in the south. The silver-mines were for centuries among the richest in Mexico, and though many are now abandoned, mining is still the chief industry. The state is traversed by the Mexican Central railway. The capital, Chihuahua, 225 miles south of El Paso by rail, rises like an oasis in the desert, among roses and orange-groves. It is well built, and is the center of considerable trade with Texas. Founded in 1691; population 1890, 12,116.

CHI HWANG TI OR CHE HWANG-TE. See CHINA, Vol. V, pp. 643, 644.

CHILBLAINS. See MORTIFICATION, Vol. XVI,

p. 849.

He

He

CHILD, FRANCIS JAMES, an American scholar and educator; born in Boston, Feb. 1, 1825. was graduated at Harvard in 1846, traveled and studied in Europe in 1849-50, and in 1851 became professor of oratory and rhetoric at Harvard. held this position until 1876, at which date he exchanged the chair for that of English literature. He especially distinguished himself in AngloSaxon and the earliest English literature, having few, if any, superiors as a Chaucerian scholar. He edited the works of Spenser and issued his first collection of English and Scottish Ballads (1857-58), and superintended the American edition of the British poets. Other works included Four Old Plays (1848); a collection of Poems of Sorrow and Comfort (1865); Observations on the Language of Chaucer and