790

CHILLON, a celebrated castle and fortress of Switzerland, in the canton of Vaud. It is situated on the east end of the Lake of Geneva, on an isolated rock, almost entirely surrounded by deep water, and is connected with the shore by a wooden bridge. The castle is said to have been built in 1238 by Amadeus IV of Savoy. It long served as a state prison, but is now used as a magazine for military stores. It is celebrated as the place of confinement of FRANÇOIS DE BONNIVARD (q.v. Vol. IV, p. 36), the "Prisoner of Chillon" and subject of Byron's poem.

CHILLS. See Malarial Fever and Pneumonia, under PATHOLOGY, Vol. XVIII, pp. 394, 396. CHILOGNATHA AND CHILOPODA. Centipedes, Vol. V, pp. 340, 341.

See

CHILTERN HUNDREDS. See CHILTERN HILLS, Vol. V, p. 626.

CHILTON, a city and the capital of Calumet County, central eastern Wisconsin, 95 miles N.W. of Madison, on the Manitowoc River, and on the Chicago, Milwaukee and St. Paul railroad. It is chiefly an agricultural station. Population 1890,

I,424.

CHIMÆRIDÆ, a family of fishes. See ICHTHYOLOGY, Vol. XII, p. 686.

CHIMALTENANGO, a city and the capital of the department of Chimaltenango, southern Guatemala, 25 miles W. of the city of Guatemala. The inhabitants are mostly engaged in handling the products of the district. Population, 4,100. The department has an area of 800 square miles and a population of 61,013, engaged in agriculture and the manufacture of cotton cloths, tissues, woolen goods, hats, baskets, ropes and pottery. Some gold is found by washing the sand of the river-beds. CHIMBORAZO, a conical peak of the Andes, in Ecuador, 20,517 feet above the sea. The first successful attempt to reach the summit was in 1880, when Whymper twice made the ascent. See ECUADOR, Vol. VII, p. 645.

CHIMERE, a bishop's upper robe, to which the lawn sleeves are attached. That of Anglican bishops is of black satin, that of Roman Catholics is of purple silk.

CHIMMESYANS OR TSIMSIANS, Indians. A tribe of Indians in British Columbia, estimated to number 5,000. They resemble the natives of southern Alaska in many particulars, are expert fishermen, but indifferent hunters, and reside in wooden houses, similar to the Alaskan Indians. Potlatch," or the giving of great feasts, is one of their customs. CHIMNEY. See BUILDING, Vol. IV, p. 466; STEAM-ENGINE, Vol. XXII, pp. 496–500.

66

CHIMPANZEE. See APE, Vol. II, pp. 149, 150. CHIMU OR GRAN CHIMU, an ancient city of northwestern Peru, on the coast, four miles N. of Truxillo. It was the chief town of the Chimu or Yuncas people. Its ruins are the most extensive in America, covering some 72 square miles, and are from 12 to 15 miles in length. The ruined palaces and temples, immense reservoirs which were filled by an aqueduct 14 miles long, its rich ornaments which have been found among its ruins, show that it was a city of grandeur and importance.

The island of Formosa was ceded to Japan under the treaty of peace ratified at Chefoo, May 8, 1895, and formally transferred, June 2, 1895. At the end of 1894 the total number of foreigners resident in the open ports of China was 9,350, including 1,294 Americans, 3,989 British and 780 Portuguese. Nearly one half of these resided at Shanghai.

The present sovereign is TSAI'TIEN (emperor) HWANGTI (of China), born in 1871, who succeeded to the throne by proclamation on the death of his predecessor, T'UNG CHI, Jan. 22, 1875. Like his predecessor, he is a grandson of the Emperor TAOUKWANG. After he became of age, the young Emperor nominally assumed government in March, 1887, but did not take full control until the withdrawal, in February, 1889, of the Empress Dowager, known as the "Western" Empress, widow of T'UNG CHI. He was married Feb. 26, 1889.

The amount of the public revenue of China is not definitely known, but is estimated at from $75,000,000 to $125,000,000. Of the estimate of $75,000,000, the land tax (which does not exceed 75 cents per acre yearly in the north, while it sometimes reaches $3 per acre in the south) is supposed to yield upward of $26,000,000; maritime customs, $13,500,000; inland duty on foreign opium, $3,500,ooo; inland transit dues, about $9,000,000; native customs, and duty on native-grown opium, $7,500,ooo; the salt monopoly, $7,500,000; and miscellaneous sources the remainder.

The expenditures of the Chinese government are mainly for the army, and the existing debt has arisen almost entirely out of the war of 1894-95 with Japan. (See JAPAN and COREA, in these Supplements.) At the outbreak of the war, China's outstand ing debt was about $2,500,000. It is understood that it now reaches the sum of $265,000,000, three quarters of which is in consequence of payments to Japan of the war indemnity and of the price of the retrocession of the Leao-Tong peninsula.

According to Chinese official statistics, the army is composed of-1. "The Eight Banners," including Manchus, Mongols and the Chinese who joined the invaders under Emperor Sunchih, A.D. 1644, with a total of 323,800, of whom 100,000 are supposed to be reviewed by the Emperor at Peking once a year.

2. "The Ying Ping," or national army, having 650,000 men and 6,500 officers. These figures, however, relate to the year 1892, and it is impossible to obtain reliable information of a later date; but it is understood that great improvements have taken place and that large quantities of foreign

made arms have been purchased, while the Chinese arsenals, under foreign supervision, are turning out both arms and ammunition. The active army comprises, first, the army of Manchuria, with 70,000 men, divided into two army corps, having their headquarters at Tsitsihar and Moukden, respectively, and to a large extent armed with the Mauser rifle and Krupp eight-centimeter field-pieces; secondly, the army of the center, numbering, in time of peace, 50,000 men, with headquarters at Kalgan, an important town northwest of Peking. These men are of a hardy race, and are armed with Remington rifles. Their number can be doubled in case of war; and thirdly, the army of Turkestan, employed to keep order in the extreme western territories, and probably not available for service farther east in the event of war with a European foe.

The territorial army, or "" 'Braves," is a local militia, capable of being raised to 600,000 men, but kept at 200,000 in time of peace.

The Tatar cavalry of the north, mounted on undersized but sturdy ponies, and wretchedly equipped, are no match for European cavalry.

The Chinese navy, during the war with Japan, disappointed those who regarded it as an effective fighting force. Being required to remain in Chinese waters, it was practically condemned to uselessness. Its seamen were brave, but demoralized under the command of inefficient officers, and in the various engagements of the war a dozen or more vessels were sunk, burned or run ashore. The organization of the fleet in distinct squadrons, severally raised and maintained by the provincial viceroys, operated as a bar to combined action.

The naval strength of China after the war included no battle-ships, 3 port-defense vessels, 7 second-class cruisers, 9 third-class cruisers of 12 knots' speed or more, and 33 of less than that speed; and 7 firstclass, 25 second-class and 2 third-class torpedo-boats. There are arsenals or dockyards at Port Arthur, Wei-Hai-Wei, Port Li, Canton and Shanghai.

China is essentially an agricultural country, although no statistics as to its cultivated areas or crops exist. Cereals are raised in the north, rice in the south, tea in the south and west, and the mulberry tree grows in all portions of the country. Opium has become a crop of increasing importance. Coal underlies every province, and the coal-mines at Kai-P'Ing and Hankow have been worked to advantage. There are considerable stores of iron and copper, and copper-mining is an ancient industry in the province of Yünnan, where, however, modern methods are now being employed.

In 1894 the foreign imports amounted to $121,000,000, and the foreign exports to $96,000,000. The imports from Great Britain were $22,500,000, against $7,000,000 from the United States; while the exports to Great Britain were only some $9,000,000, against $12,000,000 to the United States. These figures, however, do not include the trade to and from these countries via Hongkong, which is of considerable extent. The chief imports in 1894 were opium and cotton goods, and the chief exports tea and silk. In the tea trade China has seriously felt the competition of India, Ceylon and Japan in

791

recent years. Japan has been an especially formidable competitor for the American market.

China has an extensive and rapidly increasing telegraphic service, but almost no railways. Peking now has direct overland telegraphic communication with Europe by way of the Amoor valley, Siberia and Russia.

The viceroy, Li Hung Chang, who has been called the Gladstone and the Bismarck of China, has shown a liberal and progressive spirit in adopting for his country, during recent years, many of the improved methods and enlarged ideas of Western civilizations. CHINA CLAY. See KAOLIN, Vol. XIV, p. 1. CHINA GRASS. See RHEA FIBRE, Vcl. XX, p. 506.

CHINA, GREAT Wall of. See CHINA, Vol. V, pp. 637, 644.

CHINAMPAS, the floating market-gardens which the Spanish conquerors of Mexico found in great numbers upon the lakes in the vicinity of Montezuma's capital. They were constructed upon masses of grass and weeds, strengthened with poles or piles, and often had a superstructure resembling a house or raft, in which their owners lived. The chinampas were very beautiful, and in time became attached to terra firma. Their occupants were Indians, who took the name of Chinampenecs, and were probably of Aztec descent.

CHINANDEGA, a town and the capital of the department of the same name in western Nicaragua; 12 miles from the sea, 18 miles N. W. of Leon. The department is very fertile, and produces large quantities of cotton and sugar, the handling of which is the chief industry of the townspeople. The population in 1888 of the department was 23,719; of the town, 12,500.

CHINA-ROOT.

p. 314.

See SARSAPARILLA, Vol. XXI,

CHINA SEA. See PACIFIC OCEAN, Vol. XVIII, p. 116. CHINA WAX. See WAX, Vol. XXIV, p. 459. CHINCH-BUG (Blissus leucopterus), a hemipterous insect common in the Mississippi valley regions, and found in almost every state. Probably no insect causes greater damage to the cereal grains and the grass crops. The mature chinch-bug is three sixteenths of an inch long. The wing-covers are white, with large black spots, and the rest of the body is dark brown. Some of the bugs remain alive during the winter. In the spring the eggs are deposited in the ground. The larvæ suck the sap from the roots of plants. The perfect insects travel from field to field, and destroy the plants in their path. There are two broods in a year, one in early summer and one in autumn. Several infectious diseases are peculiar to the chinch-bug. Within the last five years this fact has furnished the basis of a successful method of preventing their ravages. Bugs artificially infected with one of these diseases are placed in fields where the insects are numerous, and within a few days the disease becomes epidemic. This method of extermination has been applied in several states.

CHINCHILLIDE, a family of rodents. See MAMMALIA, Vol. XV, p. 420.

792

CHINCOTEAGUE BAY AND ISLAND. See ASSATEAGUE, in these Supplements.

CHINDWARA. See CHHINDWARA, Vol. V, p.

608.

CHINESE EXCLUSION. The Burlingame treaty of 1868 between the United States and China provided for the enjoyment by the Chinese in America of all rights, in respect to travel and residence, accorded to the most favored nation. The experience of the people of this country with Chinese laborers during many years subsequent to the date of that treaty was voiced by a notorious demagogue in the curt dictum, "The Chinese must go "; and in 1880 a new treaty was concluded with China, whereby the government of the United States might suspend, but not absolutely prohibit, their coming to our shores. In accordance with the provisions of this treaty, Congress passed an act in 1882, with amendments in 1884, which suspended the coming of Chinamen to this country for ten years, but which also provided that if Chinamen already here desired to revisit their own country and return here again, they might do so upon certificates of residence, to be obtained from certain officials before their departure, and to be presented by them at their port of arrival when they returned. It was soon discovered that the purpose of the law was being circumvented, and that new immigrants were constantly gaining admission to this country by the fraudulent transfer and use of these certificates, and a law was passed in 1888 which forbade their issuance and declared all outstanding certificates void.

When the exclusion act of 1882 was about to expire, Congress passed an act, approved May 5, 1892, commonly known as the Geary Law, the main provisions of which were that all prior exclusion laws were extended for a further period of ten years, and that all Chinese laborers, or those of Chinese descent, should, within one year, obtain a certificate of residence from the collector of internal revenue in their district; should, by regulation of the Secretary of the Treasury under authority of this act, each prove his identity by registering and filing three proof-sheet photographs of his face; and that all failing to comply with the provisions of this law should be deported from the United States. A fine of one thousand dollars or imprisonment for five years was imposed for altering or substituting a name. in a certificate or for forging or fraudulently uttering a certificate. The Chinese generally failed to comply with the provisions of the law within the time limit, and owing to the wholly insufficient appropriations made for carrying it into effect the deportations could not be made. In 1893 an amendment was passed extending the time for registration six months. The total number of Chinese registered under the Geary Law up to 1895 was 105,312. In 1894 a new treaty with China was sent to the Senate March 9th, and ratified August 13th, which prohibits absolutely for ten years the coming of Chinese laborers into the United States, but permits such as depart from this country leaving property or near kin, to return within one year, if, before their departure, they shall have obtained from the proper official of the United States a certificate reciting the

facts. Additional time for the return may also be granted in special cases.

CHINESE LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE. See CHINA, Vol. V, pp. 653-667.

CHINESE WHITE, a pigment consisting simply of the oxid of zinc (ZnO). It is prepared by passing air through a burning mixture of zinc ore and coal; the resulting oxid is white, insoluble in water, and incapable of reduction by heat. It has a shiny appearance, and is often used in place of white lead.

CHING-TU, a city of western China, and the capital of the province of Sze-Chuen; on the river Min, about 200 miles N. of its junction with the YangTse River. The city is well laid out, and well built, clean and prosperous. It is surrounded with a wall 12 miles in circumference. The viceroy has his residence here. The surrounding country is very fertile. Population, 800,000.

CHE-KEANG, province. See CHINA, Vol. V, p.

636.

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CHINKAPIN, an American Indian name applied to sweet acorns and their allies, and also to the trees which produce them. Probably the original "chinkapin" is Castanea pumila, a dwarf chestnut with a solitary nut in each involucre, or 'husk." The name is commonly given also to the oak Quercus prinoides, also called "dwarf chestnut-oak," as well as to the large "chestnut-oak," Q. Prinus. Also written "chinquapin" and "chincapin."

CHINOOK, a wind. See WASHINGTON, Vol. XXIV, p. 385.

CHINOOK OR CHINUK INDIANS, a nearly extinct family of North American Indians, formerly inhabiting the country along the Columbia River from Oregon to Vancouver. They were expert fishermen, subsisting chiefly on fish, berries and roots; were not given to the chase, but secured skins and other articles for clothing by barter with other tribes. They were indolent and thievish, and kept slaves. Only a few scattered families, barely sufficient to keep up tribal relations, remain in parts of Oregon and Washington.

CHINTZ, a certain kind of cotton cloth, printed in a number of colors with a design usually of leaves or flowers, and having the printed surface made smoother than the other by sizing or glazing. Before cotton could be cheaply made, chintz was considered an elegant and tasteful material for ladies' garments. It is now largely used as a summer covering for upholstered furniture and for curtains.

CHIO OR CHIOS, a Greek island. See Scio, Vol. XXI, p. 465.

CHIPMUNK. See SQUIRREL, Vol. XXII, p. 438. CHIPPAWA, a village and port of entry of Welland County, southern Ontario, on the Niagara River, three miles above the Falls; noted for the battle of July 5, 1814, between the United States forces under General Joseph Brown and the British under Major-General Riall, in which General Winfield Scott participated and won distinction. The United States troops won a signal victory. General Brown's command numbered about 1,900 men, the British forces some 300 more. The British loss was over 500; the American, 328.

CHIPPEWA FALLS, a flourishing city and rail

road junction and the capital of Chippewa County, northwestern Wisconsin. It is located on Chippewa River, and on the Wisconsin Central, the Chicago, St. Paul, Minneapolis and Omaha and the Chicago, St. Paul and Milwaukee railroads. The city has water, gas, and electric light works. There are several mills, and lumber is extensively manufactured. Population 1895, 9,196.

CHIPPEWAS. See INDIANS, Vol. XII, pp. 827

831.

CHIPPING-BARNET. See BARNET, Vol. III,

P. 379.

CHIPPING-BIRD (Spizella socialis), a small North American bird of the sparrow family (Fringillida). It is also known as chipping-sparrow and chippy.

CHIQUICHIQUI PALM, a native South American name applied to the Leopoldinia piassaba, or "piassaba" palm. Its leaf fibers, obtained from the petioles, are extensively used in the northern part of South America for making cables. This fiber has become also an article of commerce.

CHIQUIMULA DE LA SIERRA, a town and the capital of the department of the same name in Guatemala, northern Central America; it is on a tributary of the river Motagua, 68 miles S.S.E. of Guatemala. Population, 9,000.

CHIQUINQUIRA, a city of the department of Boyaca, eastern Colombia, among the eastern Cordilleras, 8,576 feet above the sea. It is famed for an image of the Virgin, reputed to be of miraculous origin. The chapel of this image is considered to be the finest in Colombia, and it is said that 60,000 pilgrims visit it yearly. The region about Chiquinquira is a grazing district. Population, about 12,000. CHIRIQUI, the name of a lagoon, river and volcano on the Isthmus of Panama. The lagoon is in the country claimed by both Colombia and Costa Rica. It is 90 miles long, 50 miles wide and of sufficient depth for the navigation of any vessels. It has several large islands. The river is part of the boundary claimed by Colombia. It rises in the Cordillera de Chiriqui and flows north to the sea. Its mouth is in lat. 9° N., and long. 82° 30' W. The volcano is 40 miles southwest of the lagoon, in the above cordillera, 11,260 feet in height.

CHISELHURST, a village in Kent, 11 miles S. E. of London. Sir Nicholas Bacon was a native of Chiselhurst. Camden Park estate (now built over) was the residence of Camden the antiquary. Napoleon III died at Camden Place in 1873; his remains and those of the Prince Imperial were removed to Farnborough in January, 1888. There are here an orphanage and a governesses' benevolent institution..

CHITIN, an organic substance which forms the basis of the hard parts of arthropods and many other invertebrates. It is a nitrogenous noncrystalline compound, allied to the proteids. It is only soluble in strong mineral acids (hydrochloric or sulphuric). In the crustaceans and insects it is seen in a quite pure condition at the joints of the body and appendages, but elsewhere it is impregnated with mineral salts, forming a hard sub

stance.

793

CHITON, a family of gasteropods. See MoLLUSCA, Vol. XVI, pp. 641-644

CHITON. See COSTUME, Vol. VI, p. 453. CHITRAL, a district of Afghanistan. See KASHGAR, Vol. XIV, p. 11, and AFGHANISTAN, in these Supplements.

CHITTAGONG-WOOD, a name somewhat vaguely used by cabinet-makers; usually the wood of Chickrassia tabularis, a tree of the family Meliaceæ, a native of the mountainous countries to the east of Bengal. It is often beautifully veined and mottled.

CHITTENANGO SPRINGS OR WHITE SULPHUR SPRINGS, a resort in Sullivan township, Madison County, central New York, four miles S. of Chittenango station, on the New York Central and Hudson River railroad. There are accommodations for a large number of visitors in the vicinity. The springs are a sulphated saline solution.

CHITTENDEN, RUSSELL HENRY, an American physiological chemist, a graduate of Yale and Heidelberg universities; born at New Haven, Connecticut, Feb. 18, 1856; has been instructor and professor at Yale for many years; is a member of the National Academy of Sciences; author of several works based on scientific investigation, and an occasional writer of periodical literature.

CHITTOR, a town of southern India, in the district of Arcot, about 30 miles W. of Madras, on the right bank of the Puni, about 1,100 feet above the sea. Population, 5,572.

CHITTY, JOSEPH, an English lawyer, author and editor of many legal text-books; born in 1776; died in London, Feb. 17, 1843. His works. were for many years the highest authority upon the subjects of which they treat, and still constitute the foundation of what is written for instruction in those branches. Among them are his well-known treatise on the Law of Contracts, which has run through many editions; Precedents in Pleading (1808); Treatise on Criminal Law (1816); Chitty's Blackstone (1832); Chitty's Practice of the Law (1833-38); and many others.

CHIVALRY. See KNIGHTHOOD, Vol. XII, p.

IIO.

CHIVES. See HORTICULTURE, Vol. XII, p. 281. CHIVILCOY, a city of southeastern Argentine Republic, on the Western railroad; about 110 miles W. of Buenos Ayres. It is in a rich graz

ing district, and is well built and clean. Popula

tion, 12,000.

CHIZEROTS AND BURINS form one of those peculiar races in France that live isolated in the midst of the rest of the population, and are despised and hated by their neighbors. They are found in the arrondissement of Bourg-en-Bresse, in the department of Ain, and the communes of Sermoyer, Arbigny, Boz and Ozan belong to them. According to tradition they are descended from the Saracens. Although industrious and prosperous, they are held in the utmost contempt and detestation by their peasant neighbors, who are themselves often indolent and destitute. They are looked upon as covetous and malicious.