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CHOKE-CHERRY, the common name of Prunus Virginiana, a small American tree or shrub, with rather dense racemes of white flowers and a dark-red astringent fruit.

CHOKE-DAMP OR FIRE-DAMP. See Lighting, under COAL, Vol. VI, p. 72.

CHOKING COIL. See ELECTRICITY, $78, in these Supplements.

CHOLERA. "It is now generally accepted,' says Dr. S. T. Armstrong, "that Asiatic cholera is a specific, infectious disease that is caused by the comma bacillus of Koch. It is not contagious in the same sense as smallpox or typhus fever, but in the manner of its propagation is similar to typhoid fever. The premise of a specific infection leads to the conclusion of some definite method of introduction, and the disease is chiefly propagated by the contamination of water used for drinking, cooking and washing, by the contamination of articles of food, and possibly by the superficial inhalation and subsequent swallowing of dust containing the comma bacillus. This latter statement is based on the report of many cases of the disease, the origin of which is explicable by no other tenable hypothesis." In 1892 the United States narrowly escaped a visitation of this dread disease, which, in that year, entered Europe through Russia. Starting from India in the early weeks of the year, it followed the caravan routes, and, crossing the mountains by the Khyber Pass, it visited Cabul and the Afghan cities, reached the northern line of Russian Transcaspian travel, and made its way westward both by the Merv route and also by way of Persia. It passed across and around the Caspian Sea and broke out in Astrakhan, on its European side, at the mouth of Russia's great river, the Volga, whence it made its way up the Volga valley to Nijni-Novgorod, the city of markets and fairs, and from there it went to Moscow, St. Petersburg and the Baltic Sea. From the Baltic Sea it spread to other parts of Europe, and to America, aided by the great emigration of Russian Jews to the United States and elsewhere which was then in progress under the auspices of Baron Hirsch. Arrangements had been made for the transportation of many thousands of these poor people, and even after the cholera had broken out among them, every effort was made to carry out the contract and dump them on American

Hamburg and Havre, and thence to various points. in Germany, to Paris, and to other Continental cities. Hamburg suffered especially from the plague, and had at one time 5,000 cases. From there, in the fall, it made its passage by emigrant steamers to New York Harbor, where a quarantine of unsparing rigor effectually checked its progress beyond the shores of the lower bay. The United States government temporarily stopped the admission of emigrants, and with the advance of cold weather the disease died out. In 1893 and 1894 cholera again broke out in many places in Europe, but by a strict quarantine its introduction in the United States was prevented. See CHOLERA, Vol. V, pp. 682-684.

CHOLERA INFANTUM, a dangerous disease of children which commences in the intestinal canal and ultimately pervades the entire system. It is most common in children two years of age and under, and more common among children of the poor than of the rich. It usually originates in errors of diet during very hot weather, but an unhealthful atmosphere caused by decay of garbage or by imperfect drainage, or a close, moist, and overheated atmosphere, is often a predisposing cause. Dr. Benjamin Rush characterized this disease as an infantile bilious remittent fever. A withered, weak and senile appearance of the skin is a characteristic symptom in the later stage of the disease, while its earlier manifestations are prostration, vomiting and diarrhoea. See CHOLERA, Vol. V, p. 682.

CHOLESTERIN, a substance (CH"O) crystallizing in leaflets, with a mother-of-pearl luster and a fatty feel. It occurs in the blood and brain, in the yolks of eggs, and in the seeds of buds and plants. It has also been found as a fat occurring in the feathers of birds, and is present, in considerable proportions, in wool. It was, until 1887, regarded as of no value when occurring in feathers and wool, except as a combustible. Liebrich has experimented with it and produced an extremely pliant, soft mass, absorbable by the skin, and capable of being readily incorporated with various medicaments. It is now being manufactured commercially, and has come into general demand as a basis for salves and cosmetics. See also NUTRITION, Vol. XVII, p. 675. CHONETES, a brachiopod shell found in Paleozoic formations of Europe and America. CHONOS ISLANDS. See PATAGONIA, Vol. XVIII, p. 352.

CHORAL. See MUSIC, Vol. XVII, p. 85.

CHORAL SERVICE, in the Church of England, and in the Protestant Episcopal Church of the United States of America, service with intoned responses and the use of music throughout, wherever it is authorized. A service is said to be partly choral when only canticles, hymns, etc., are sung; wholly choral when, in addition to these, the versicles, responses, etc., are sung.

CHORAL SOCIETIES. See MUSIC IN AMERICA, in these Supplements.

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CHRISTIAN IX, KING OF DENMARK, born April 8, 1818, fourth son of William, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein; succeeded to the throne in 1863, his predecessor having been the last of the line of Oldenburg, which had held the government for four hundred years. His acces

Gr

CHRISTIAN IX, KING OF
DENMARK.

In 1869

sion rekindled certain political disputes of long standing, concerning the status of the duchies of Schleswig-Holstein, and he was soon involved in an unequal war with Austria and Prussia, from which he withdrew by releasing all claim to the disputed territory (which amounted to about one third of his dominion), leaving the other contestants to fight for the prize between themselves in a war which ended with the battle of Sadowa in 1866. To obtain money for the reorganization of his army, he desired to sell to the United States, in 1867, the islands of St. Thomas, St. Jean and Ste. Croix of the Antilles. he cemented the union of the Scandinavian peoples by the marriage of his eldest son to the only daughter of Charles XV, King of Sweden. As a ruler he has striven for the moral and material improvement of his people, for their increase in personal and religious liberty, and for the removal of feudal encumbrances from their laws. two legislative houses voted a new constitution in 1866, and in 1874 a new constitution was granted to Iceland upon the thousandth anniversary of its national existence. In 1892 was celebrated with becoming splendor the fiftieth anniversary of the marriage of King Christian with his consort, the Princess Louise of Hesse-Cassel. Among their children are: Frederick, the Prince Royal; Alexandra, Princess of Wales; George I, King of the Greeks; and Dagmar, Dowager Empress of Russia.

The

CHRISTIAN, FREDERICK CHRISTIAN CHARLES AUGUSTUS, PRINCE, a younger son of the late Duke Christian Charles Frederick Augustus of Schleswig-Holstein, who ceded his duchy to Denmark, and brother to Prince Frederick Charles Augustus, whose claims to the sovereignty of that duchy, as against the King of Denmark, were made the pretext for the Schleswig-Holstein War on the part of the German powers; born Jan. 22, 1831; married the Princess Helen Augusta Victoria of England, July 5, 1866; is a general in the British army and a Knight of the

and lucrative positions with credit to himself and with the good will of the British public. CHRISTIAN, HELEN AUGUSTA VICTORIA, PRINCESS, third daughter of Queen Victoria of England; born May 25, 1846; married at Windsor Castle, July 5, 1866, to Prince Frederick Christian Charles Augustus of Schleswig-Holstein; received from the British Parliament on the occasion of her marriage a dowry of $150,000 and an annuity of $30,000. She resides at Cumberland Lodge, Windsor, and has living two sons and two daughters.

CHRISTIAN ALLIANCE, a religious association organized in 1887, with its headquarters at 692 Eighth Avenue, New York City. It was founded by Rev. A. B. Simpson, who has been its president from the date of its organization. Its membership, as described by its founder, "consists of all professing Christians who subscribe to its principles and enroll their names." Its objects are stated to be "wide diffusion of the Gospel in its fullness, the promotion of a deeper and higher Christian life, and the work of evangelization, especially among the neglected classes, by highway missions and any other practical methods. The organization is said to be rapidly extending, especially throughout the United States and Canada. Auxiliary to the parent alliance is the "International Missionary Alliance," with a missionary training-school located at 690 Eighth Avenue, New York City. At the end of 1895 the organization had established 265 missionaries in India, China, Japan, Haiti, and Congo Free State. In New York City special work is done for fallen girls by means of "The Door of Hope," a branch "home" opened by the alliance, at 102 East Sixty-first Street, and another, known as "Door No. 2," in Tappan, New York.

CHRISTIAN COMMISSION, an organization formed at the call of the Young Men's Christian Association in New York City, Nov. 14, 1861, for the purpose of looking after the spiritual and temporal welfare of the volunteer soldiers in the Union army. George H. Stuart, a well-known Christian merchant of Philadelphia, was president of the organization throughout the war; and thousands of the ministers and most active laymen of the churches of the North gave their personal services in connection with the humane work of the commission upon the field of battle, on the march, in camp, and in the hospital.

CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, THE UNITED SOCIETY OF, is the headquarters and general bureau of the YOUNG PEOPLE'S SOCIETIES OF CHRISTIAN ENDEAVOR, the first of which was formed at Williston Church, Portland, Maine, Feb. 2, 1881, and which, in April, 1896, had increased to 44,596 societies, with a membership of 2,630,000 in the United States, Canada, Great Britain and missionary lands. The United Society's offices are at 646 Washington Street, Boston, Massachusetts, and is managed by a board of trustees, who represent the chief evangelical denominations, and who meet quarterly. It levies no taxes and assumes

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no authority over the Young People's Societies, each of which is in some local church and manages its affairs in its own way. The purpose of the local societies is to promote an earnest and useful Christian life on the part of each member, to increase mutual acquaintance between members, and to train young converts in the practical duties of Christianity. The annual gatherings of the Young People's Societies, held under the auspices of the United Society, have had a phenomenally large attendance, and have done much to increase the popularity of the institution.

CHRISTIAN ERA. See CHRONOLOGY, Vol. V, pp. 712, 713.

CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE, THE SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING, is the oldest of a number of great religious associations connected with the Church of England. It was founded in London in 1698, and has for its main objects the establishment of schools, churches and libraries, and the publication and circulation of religious and moral literature. It is still in active operation and publishes a great number of religious and instructive works. It has recently established a training college for schoolmistresses. The society has had a vast development, and within a few years past reported the establishment of 25,000 schools, attended by 1,500,000 children. It sent missionaries to India as early as 1749, and has contributed largely to the endowment of colonial bishoprics.

CHRISTIANS OR CHRISTIAN CONNECTION, the name adopted by a religious denomination in the United States, which originated, in 1793, in a secession from the Methodists of Virginia and North Carolina, led by the Rev. J. O'Kelley, and at first called "Republican Methodists." The name was changed that it might express their renunciation of all sectarianism. They must not be confounded with the "Christian Churches" or "Disciples of Christ." In 1800, or soon after, they received accessions from Baptist churches in Vermont, under Dr. Abner Jones and others, and from Presbyterians in Kentucky. They are widely scattered throughout the United States, and in 1895 had 1,300 churches, 1,380 ministers and 9,500 communicants. Antioch College, Ohio; Lincoln College, Nebraska; Union Christian College at Meron, Indiana; and the Christian Biblical Institute of Stanfordsville, New York, are among their institutions. Their principles make each church an independent body and the Bible their only rule of faith, with every person at liberty to interpret it for himself. Membership is obtained by a simple profession of belief in Christianity. As a rule, they are antitrinitarians and immersionists. They have annual conferences and quadrennial general conventions. Their periodicals are The Christian Sun (Suffolk, Virginia), The Herald of Gospel Liberty (Newburyport, Massachusetts), and The Gospel Herald (Dayton, Ohio.)

CHRISTIANSBURG, a town of Montgomery County, western Virginia, on the Norfolk and Western railroad, about 100 miles S. W. of Lex

ington. It has a college for young women, an academy, and factories of tobacco and of shoes. Population 1890, 1,176. See ST.

CHRISTIANS OF ST. THOMAS. THOMAS, Vol. XXIII, p. 308. CHRISTIANSTED. See ST. CROIX, Vol. XXI,

p. 160.

CHRISTIAN UNION CHURCHES OR CHRISTIAN UNION CHURCHES OF THE WEST, an organization formed at Columbus, Ohio, in 1863. They have no creed, but assert. the oneness of the Church, with Christ as its only head, and the Bible the only rule of faith and practice. Each of their churches is self-governed and "good fruits" are the only condition of membership. They reported 183 ministers, 294 churches and 18,000 communicants in 1894.

CHRISTIE, WILLIAM HENRY MAHONY, astronomer royal, born at Woolwich, England, Oct. 1, 1845; entered Trinity College, Cambridge, 1865; B. A., 1868; M.A., 1871; chief assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, 1870; astronomer royal of England and director of Greenwich Observatory (1881), in which offices he has been a worthy successor of Sir George B. Airy; was the inventor of a recording micrometer, and of numerous photometric instruments; also the author of a Manual of Elementary Astronomy (1875), and of many important papers read before learned societies.

CHRISTINA, the name of two queens regent of Spain. See MARIA CHRISTINA, in these Supplements.

CHRISTISON, SIR ROBERT, Scottish physician and toxicologist; born at Edinburgh, July 18, 1797; died Jan. 23, 1882. In 1819 he proceeded to London and Paris, and in the French capital studied toxicology under the celebrated Orfila. He was, in 1822, appointed professor of medical jurisprudence in the University of Edinburgh, and in 1832 was promoted to the chair of materia medica, which he occupied till 1877, when he retired. He was appointed physician in-ordinary to in-ordinary to the Queen in 1848; president of the Edinburgh Royal Society (1868-73); and created a baronet in 1871. Besides contributing papers on various subjects to medical journals. Christison wrote a Treatise on Poisons (1829); Biographical Sketch of Edward Turner, M.D. (1837); a treatise on Granular Degeneration of the Kidneys (1839); and The Dispensatory: A Commentary on the Pharmacopeias of Great Britain (1842).

CHRISTLIEB, THEODORE, German theologian; born at Birkenfeld, Würtemberg, March 7, 1833; became minister of a German evangelical congregation in London, and afterward pastor at Friedrichshafen, and since 1868 has been professor of practical theology at Bonn. Among his published works are Leben und Lehre des Johannes Scotus Erigena (1860); and Modern Doubt and Christian Faith (1870).

CHRISTMAS ISLAND, a large, low atoll in the Pacific Ocean, lat 1° 57' N., long. 157° 27" It has good anchorage, and is the headquar

W.

ters of an American guano company.-Another CHRISTMAS ISLAND, annexed to Britain in 1888, lies about 250 miles southwest of Java. It is six miles long by four broad, composed of coral masses piled up on a volcanic substratum, and is partially covered with luxuriant vegetation.

CHRISTOLOGY. From Greek Xotoros, Christ, and loyos, a treatise. The doctrine of the person of Christ, or a treatise relating to it. The doctrine, as now generally held, was developed slowly. The early Christians usually contented themselves with the employment of Biblical language in regard to the person of Christ, without much attempt to explain it. The Jews and pagans who heard them understood it to teach his deity, and the Jews attacked them for preaching two Gods, and thus contradicting the monotheism of the Old Testament. This led them to a study of the Scriptures, and an effort to construe their statements carefully.

We may divide the history of the doctrine into two main periods, and a third period must be added to embrace the recent labors of theologians in this field.

1. The first period extends from the debate of Justin Martyr with Trypho the Jew, about 140, to the Council of Nicæa, 325, during which the church labored to define the relation of the Logos in Christ to the Father, and incidentally to the Spirit also. Justin, in his debate with Trypho, maintained that "God, before all creatures, begot of himself a certain reasonable power called the glory of the Lord, the Son, the Logos." This generation was at a certain definite period in eternity, and its product, the Logos, was subordinate to the Father, not only in functions, but in nature. Tertullian carried the doctrine much further; he was the first to use the word trinity, and to teach that God is a tripersonality in himself. Yet he held that the Logos, though inherent in God, did not become a personal being till the work of creation was to begin, and is always subordinate in nature. To Origen we owe the statement that the Logos is without beginning, and is always personal, and that Christ is "the God-man. Yet he also held that the Logos is inferior to the Father in nature. All the preceding writers maintained that the Logos was generated by an act of the divine will. Thus far had the Christian world advanced in its interpretation of the Scriptures, when the Arian controversy burst upon it, and led it to the conviction, never since shaken, that the Logos is equal to the Father in nature, being of the same numerical substance; that he is generated eternally, and had no beginning; and that he is always generated by the nature of the Father, and not by a determination of the divine will. The doctrine is, in other words, that it is the nature of God to exist as a trinity of persons in a unity of sub

stance.

2.

Having defined the teaching of the Bible concerning the relation of the Logos in Christ to the Father, it remained for the Church to define its teaching concerning the relation of the Logos

799

in Christ to the human nature in Christ. There were long and bitter controversies, leading to the condemnation of the doctrine of Apollinaris, that the Logos took the place of the human reason in Christ, leaving only a partial humanity; of the Nestorians, that while there are two complete natures in Christ, the divine and the human, they are united only morally, somewhat like a husband and wife well adapted to each other; of Eutyches, that while the two natures in Christ were originally complete, the human was quickly absorbed by the divine, leaving in fact only the latter, slightly modified by the appropriation of the former; and several other unacceptable theories. The resultant doctrine is, that in Christ the two natures are whole and entire, and so perfectly united as to constitute but a single person.

3. The doctrines of the trinity, and of the relation to each other of the divine and human in Christ, as they were thus early set forth, are now generally held in the Christian world. The second, however, has led to certain difficulties, which some modern writers have sought to remove without disturbing the doctrine itself, so that it is now passing through another stage of development, which promises good fruit.

Until recent times it was taught by theologians in general that the divine nature in Christ did not suffer, since it is impossible for God to suffer. Moreover, the divine nature in Christ retained all its attributes, and continued to perform all its accustomed offices, during the whole of his earthly life and death-his infancy, his childhood, his maturity, his waking, his sleeping, his final unconsciousness on the cross. His divine nature had infinite knowledge, and if his human nature was ever ignorant of anything, there would seem to have been an imperfect union of the two, a supposition which the creed pointedly excludes. Did Christ, then, only seem to be limited in knowledge, as when he looked for fruit on the barren fig tree? Still further, there are passages of Scripture which lead naturally to the conclusion that the entire being of Christ suffered, like the record of the agony in the garden. There are others which lead to the conclusion that in the incarnation a change took place in the Logos himself, so that the life of Christ was a humiliation, or an 'emptying,” to use the Greek word of Phil. ii, 6, 7, of the divine nature which he possessed: "Who, being in the form of God, thought it not a thing to be clutched at to be on an equality with God; but emptied himself, and took upon himself the form of a slave."

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Considerations such as these led Thomasius to the belief that in the incarnation the Logos so limited himself that he laid aside his omnipotence, omniscience, and omnipresence, and became as fully unconscious as the human nature of the new-born babe; that he gradually grew into the consciousness of his divine nature; that he possessed himself of so much of divine power and knowledge as he needed for the accomplishment of his